THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 

Department  of 
ECONOMICS  AND  SOCIOLOGY 

VOL.  1  NO.  1 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES 

A  TEXTBOOK  OUTLINE 


BY 


EMORY  STEPHEN  BOGARDUS,  PH.  D. 

H 

Associate  Professor  of  Economics  and  Sociology 


PUBLISHED   BY   THE  UNIVERSITY 

Copyright  1913,  by  E.  S.  Bogardus. 


LOS   ANGELES,    CALIFORNIA 

RALSTON  PRESS 

1913 


/J 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

This  syllabus  is  published  as  it  is  being  worked  out  in  practice 
at  the  University  of  Southern  California.  While  not  in  a  finished 
form,  it  represents  a  beginning  in  what  may  be  an  important 
direction.  The  work  of  teaching  in  the  field  of  the  social 
sciences  is  handicapped  through  lack  of  an  adequate  course  of 
study  that  will  introduce  the  student  to  the  general  field  and  at 
the  same  time  give  him  a  comprehensive  outlook.  While  this 
outline  does  not  represent  such  an  adequate  course,  it  is  printed 
in  its  present  shape  in  order  that  it  may  be  rapidly  improved  as 
the  result  of  criticism. 

The  increasing  interest  in  the  study  of  society  and  societary 
problems  by  thinking  people  has  created  a  growing  demand  for 
social  science  courses  in  the  colleges.  The  need  is  not  entirely 
for  upper  division  and  graduate  students,  but  also  for  college 
freshmen  and  sophomores  and  students  in  the  normal  schools. 
The  general  method  of  meeting  this  demand  is  to  offer  courses 
dealing  in  an  apparently  disconnected  way  with  economics,  gov- 
ernment, history,  et  cetera. 

In  many  cases,  the  economist,  for  example,  is  teaching  that 
economics  is  the  fundamental  social  science  and  that  all  of  the 
other  social  sciences  are  based  upon  and  controlled  by  the 
economic  desires  of  man,  while  in  the  same  institution  and  at  the 
same  time,  the  historian,  it  may  be,  is  teaching  the  same  student 
that  history  and  the  historical  method  are  primary  to  the  under- 
standing of  human  society.  Thus  the  teachers  and  authorities 
in  the  field  of  the  social  sciences  often  present  the  rather  strange 
spectacle  of  each  claiming  his  own  special  social  science  as  the 
most  fundamental  and  of  basing  all  other  social  sciences  upon 
his  own  specialized  field. 

Team-work  among  the  teachers  of  the  social  sciences  is  still 
almost  lacking.  Anything  like  correlation  has  been  generally 
accidental  rather  than  scientific.  Even  sociology  has  been  asking 
the  student  to  postpone  unifying  courses  in  the  social  sciences 
until  his  senior  and  graduate  years. 


4  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

There  is  need  for  a  course  of  study  which  will  introduce  the 
student  to  the  field  of  the  social  sciences.  It  should  give  him  a 
broad,  comprehensive  outlook  at  the  beginning  of  his  college 
work  and  prepare  him  for  and  arouse  his  interest  in  further 
work  in  the  individual  social  sciences.  This  study  should  make 
it  possible  for  him  to  choose  his  life-activity  with  reference  to 
all  the  activities  of  society  and  assist  him  more  or  less  per- 
manently in  keeping  his  life-work  properly  oriented  and  fitted 
into  its  proper  place  in  the  life-work  of  society. 

Such  a  course  may  well  be  given  not  from  the  uncorrelated 
points  of  view  of  the  respective  social  sciences  but  from  a  so- 
cietary  point  of  view.  It  should  clearly  indicate  that  a  good 
member  of  society  should  be  produced  before  producing  the 
lawyer,  the  engineer,  the  physician,  or  any  other  professional 
or  occupational  type.*  It  should  emphasize  the  fact  that  the 
qualities  which  make  good  members  of  communities  are  more 
important  than  the  accomplishments  of  life.*  It  should  be  based 
upon  the  proposition  that  the  relations  of  men  to  one  another 
are  more  important  than  the  relations  of  men  to  nature.*  It 
should  never  overlook  the  truth  that  the  ideal  of  the  United 
States  today  of  individual  power  and  success,  instead  of  being  a 
socializing  agency,  may  become  the  chief  instrument  for  dis- 
solving the  social  order  itself.*  The  course  of  study  in  question 
should  show  the  solidarity  of  society  and  the  interdependence 
of  all  its  parts. 

This  syllabus  is  designed  primarily  for  college  freshmen  and 
sophomores  and  for  use  in  normal  schools.  It  is  intended  to 
introduce  the  student  to  the  whole  field  of  social  science.  It  is 
also  intended  to  serve  as  a  survey  course  to  those  students  whose 
primary  interests  tend  in  other  directions  and  who  have  time  for 
only  one  course  in  the  social  science  field. 

It  is  here  attempted  to  present,  for  example,  the  political  or 
economic  factors  in  social  progress  not  only  from  a  sociological 
point  of  view,  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  student  will  want  to 
continue  along  political  science  or  economic  lines  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  student  is  not  urged  to  follow  up  this  course 
with  purely  sociological  studies,  but  the  attempt  is  made  to 


*Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,   Chap.   XV. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  5 

direct  his  social  interest  so  that  it  will  find  wholesome  expression 
through  law,  politics,  business,  and  so  forth.  In  this  outline, 
history  may  not  appear  to  have  received  full  consideration  as  an 
important  member  of  the  group  of  social  sciences,  but  the  course 
is  based  on  historical  data,  the  historical  method  is  used  more 
or  less  continuously  and  such  constant  emphasis  is  laid  on  his- 
torical explanations  and  backgrounds  that  by  the  time  the  course 
is  completed,  history  is  likely  to  have  received  more  than  its 
proportionate  attention. 

The  course  does  not  profess  to  offer  new  facts  nor  to  formulate 
new  principles.  It  does  aim  to  combine  known  facts  and  prin- 
ciples in  a  new  and  comprehensive  way.  In  order  to  cover  the 
work,  the  section  headings  include  100  topics  for  class  discus- 
sion. Each  section  as  outlined  is  the  basis  for  the  discussion 
of  one  recitation  period.  The  student  is  expected  to  bring  into 
class  each  day  illustrations  (original  illustrations  wherever 
possible)  of  the  various  points  in  each  section.  The  discussion 
which  follows  serves  to  clear  up  doubtful  points. 

From  the  student's  point  of  view,  this  course  is  essentially 
based  on  concrete  situations.  In  the  case  of  each  of  the  ten 
sets  of  factors  in  social  progress  (as  outlined  in  the  syllabus), 
the  student  is  expected  as  far  as  possible  to  make  a  study  of 
some  actual  concrete  situation  or  social  movement  in  which 
the  respective  set  of  factors  is  clearly  evident.  The  student  is 
asked  to  point  out  in  his  own  way  how  the  other  factors  in  the 
given  situation  or  historical  social  movement  are  related  to  the 
one  under  study  at  the  given  time,  how  people  in  present  or 
past  society  solve  or  have  solved  social  problems,  et  cetera.  By 
the  time  the  course  is  completed,  the  student  will  have  made 
an  intensive  study  of  several  concrete  situations  and  movements. 
From  the  instructor's  point  of  view,  the  aim  is  not  that  of  teach- 
ing concepts  chiefly,  but  rather  that  of  teaching  actual  social 
experiences  and  movements  and  of  developing  the  concepts  only 
as  they  appear  necessary. 

A  selected  list  of  readings  is  subjoined  to  each  section.  The 
references  marked  with  an  asterisk  have  been  found  most  useful 
in  preparing  the  syllabus  and  where  so  marked,  have  been  quoted 
from  freely.  The  readings  for  each  section  have  been  selected 


6  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

with  the  purpose  in  mind  of  presenting  the  given  topic  from 
several  points  of  view  and  of  using  those  references  adapted 
to  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  college  freshman  and  sophomore. 

At  the  end  of  each  chapter  will  be  found  a  group  of  suggested 
topics  for  student  investigation  and  for  class  reports.  The 
student  may  be  asked  to  subscribe  to  such  a  magazine  as  The 
Survey,  in  which  regular  assignments  for  class  discussions  may 
be  made.  The  magazine  will  assist  the  student  in  keeping  alive 
to  present-day  social  changes.  An  occasional  debate  may  be 
arranged  for  four  or  six  members  of  the  class  on  an  apropos 
topic.  To  give  over  a  class  period  once  a  month  to  a  live  debate 
on  some  phase  of  the  topic  under  discussion  at  the  time  will 
add  to  the  value  of  the  course. 

The  writer  received  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  syllabus  and 
the  stimulus  for  attempting  to  develop  the  idea  when  a  student 
in  the  classes  of  Professor  Albion  W.  Small.  Special  acknowl- 
edgement of  indebtedness  should  be  made  here  to  Schmoller's 
Grundriss  der  Allgemeinen  Volkwirtschaftslehre.  The  works  of 
Schmoller  and  of  many  other  important  scholars  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  lists  of  suggested  readings  because  too  advanced 
in  form  and  content  for  the  type  of  student  in  mind.  This 
syllabus  is  not  intended  as  the  basis,  primarily,  for  lecture  work, 
but  for  purposes  of  quiz  and  class  discussion,  hence  the  method 
is  adopted  of  using  somewhat  complete  sentences  instead  of  the 
customary  abbreviated  outline  of  syllabi  which  are  intended  for 
advanced  students. 

The  chief  object  of  this  course  of  study,  in  brief,  is  to  whet 
the  student's  appetite  for  more  knowledge  in  the  field  of  the 
social  sciences,  and  to  arouse  within  him  early  in  his  college 
course  a  strong  desire  to  go  ahead  systematically  (if  possible) 
with  further  work  in  each  of  the  social  science  branches. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTORY 


SECTION  1.    THE  FIELD  OF  THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES. 

(1)  The  first  sciences,   with  an  inductive  viewpoint,  to   de- 
velop were  the  physical. 

a.  They  describe  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  inorganic, 
non-living  world. 

b.  In  this  field,  measurements  can  be  made  accurately 
and  laws  stated  with  considerable  exactness. 

c.  This   group   includes    such    sciences    as   Astronomy, 
Geology,  Physics,  Chemistry,  Geography,  etc. 

(2)  Besides    investigating   the    inorganic   world,    science   has 
entered  the  field  of  organic  activities ;  and  the  biological 
sciences  are  in  process  of  development. 

a.  They  describe  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  living  world. 

b.  Their  subject  matter  is  more  complex  than  that  of 
the  physical  sciences. 

(a)  Since  they  are  based  on  physical  facts  and 
laws  (not  yet  adequately  described). 

(b)  Since  they  are  attempting  to  describe  non- 
mechanical,  changing  phenomena. 

c.  The  group  includes  Biology,  Zoology,  Botany,  Gen- 
eral Physiology,  General  Anatomy,  etc. 

(3)  In  recent  times,  the  highest  and  most  complex  phase  of 
life,  namely,  human  life,  has  been  scientifically  approached 
and  the  social  sciences  are  beginning  to  develop. 

a.  They  are  based  directly  on  biological  facts  and  laws 
and  indirectly  on  physical  facts  and  laws. 

b.  They  use  scientific  methods  in  describing  their  data, — 
the  coexistence  and  sequence  of  human  life. 


8  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  The  group  includes  economics,  history,  psychology, 
political  science,  ethics,  the  science  of  religion,  etc. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Chs.  I-V. 

Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Small,  The  Meaning  of  Social  Science,  Ch.  I. 

Ross,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

SECTION  2.    FACTORS  IN  THE  RISE  OF  THE  SOCIAL 
SCIENCES. 

(1)  The  rise  of  the  social  sciences  may  be  dated  from  the 
publication  by  Adam  Smith  of  "The  Wealth  of  Nations," 
1776. 

(2)  Some   of   the   leading   factors   in  the   rise   of  the   social 
sciences  that  may  be  mentioned  here  are : 

a.  When  hand-driven  tools  were  supplanted  by  power- 
driven  machinery   and  the  home   gave  way  to  the 
factory   as    the   unit  of   production   during   the   in- 
dustrial   revolution,    new    and    complex    social    phe- 
nomena began  to  develop  which  demanded  scientific 
attention. 

b.  Efforts    of    sympathetic    but    temporary    enthusiasts 
(Fourier,  Robert  Owen)  stimulated  more  permanent 
methods  of  overcoming  social  obstacles. 

c.  The    influence    of    idealists    and    critics     (Ruskin, 
Carlyle)    offered    little   toward   social    solutions   but 
helped    to    create    a    broad    horizon    for    the    social 
sciences. 

d.  The  efforts  of  the  "Christian  Socialists"  in  England 
(Maurice,  Kingsley)  made  clear  the  need  of  studying 
society  in  the  light  of  ethics. 

e.  Political  economy's  early  emphasis  on  wealth-getting 
activities  created  a  desire  for  a  conspectus  of 'all  the 
constituent  factors  of  social  progress. 

f.  The    theory    and    practice    of    modern    charity    has 
furnished  evidence  that  scientific  relief  of  dependents, 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  9 

defectives,   delinquents   rests   on  the   science  of  the 
independents,  effectives,  and  efficients. 

g.  Socialism  in  its  revolutionary  assaults  has  mercilessly 
exposed  social  evils,  but  has  failed  to  provide  scien- 
tific programs  of  social  procedure. 

h.  Religion  since  its  direct  entrance  into  the  field  of 
social  service  has  been  asking  for  a  body  of  reliable 
social  facts. 

i.  Modern  attempts  to  secure  social  legislation  with 
reference  to  employers'  liability,  child  and  woman 
labor,  social  insurance,  inheritance  and  income  taxes, 
etc.,  are  making  necessary  the  organization  of  scien- 
tific social  statistics  and  data. 

/.  The  evolution  in  means  of  transportation. 

k.  The  achievement  of  political  democracy. 

/.  The  segregation  of  classes  and  the  development  of 
class  consciousness  and  of  group  morality. 

m.  The  phenomenal  growth  and  concentration  of  popu- 
lation in  large  cities,  etc. 

(3)   In  response  to  these  and  to  other  needs,  the  social  sciences 
are  attempting  an  analysis  of  the  factors  in  social  progress. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Small  and  Vincent,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society, 

23-53. 

Blackmar,   Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  VII. 
Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  I. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  644  ff. 
Vincent,  The  Province  of  Sociology,  Amer.  Jour.   Sociol., 

1:473-491. 


SECTION  3.    THE  FACT  OF  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  AND 
THE  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS. 

( 1 )  This  course  of  study  starts  with  the  assumption  that  social 
progress  is  a  fact. 

a.   (Several  illustrations  of  the  progress  of  society  in 
the  past  few  thousand  years  may  be  suggested  here.) 


10  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(2)  This  course  attempts  to  analyze  social  progress  on  the 
basis  of  the  general  sets  of  factors  in  social  progress  and 
to  give  a  survey  of  these  sets  of  factors  in  so  far  as  they 
are  societary  factors: 

a.  Physical  and  Geographical,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the 
physical  and  geographic  environment  in  determining 
the  direction  of  social  progress. 

b.  Biological,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the  laws  of  heredity, 
variation,  natural  selection,  evolution,  and  of  the  in- 
stincts in  social  growth. 

c.  Hygienic  and   Eugenic,   i.   e.,  the  influences   of  the 
health   factor — in  improving  the  physical  functions, 
by   directing   the   biological    forces   of   heredity,   by 
control  over  disease,  by  rational  development  of  the 
play  activities. 

d.  Genetic,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the  sex  and  parental 
impulses  as  manifested  generally  in  the  development 
of  the  family. 

e.  Economic,   i.   e.,  the   influences  of  the   food-interest 
and  of  the  impulse  for  gain  as  they  have  developed 
in   connection   with  the   wealth-getting  and   wealth- 
using  activities  of  man. 

/.  Political  and  Legal,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the  pro- 
tection interest  as  manifested  in  group  organizations, 
(e.  g.,  tribes,  nations)  for  protection  against  other 
groups  and  against  the  anti-social  members  of  the 
given  social  group, — in  order  to  promote  life,  liberty, 
and  happiness. 

g.  Ethical  and  Religious,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the  de- 
sire to  do  right  as  seen  in  the  individual's  attempts 
to  develop  higher  standards  of  conduct  in  himself 
and  in  others,  and  the  influences  resulting  from 
human  attempts  to  give  finite  life  its  Infinite  rating. 

h.  Aesthetic,  i.  e.,  the  influences  connected  with  the 
expressions  of  the  feelings  through  ornamentation, 
sculpture,  music,  painting,  poetry,  etc. 

i.  Intellectual,  i.  e.,  the  influences  arising  directly  from 
the  development  of  mind. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  11 

;'.  Associational,  i.  e.,  the  influences  of  the  special  set 
of  factors  which  are  the  causes  and  the  results  of 
human  association. 

(3)  On  the  basis  of  the  above  mentioned  ten  sets  of  factors, 
the  course  closes  with  a  brief  summary  of  the  nature  of 
social  progress. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Ellwood,   Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XII. 

Ross,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  149-81. 

Stuckenberg,  Sociology,  1 : 186-258,  and  in  Carver,  Sociology 

and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  VI. 
Small,   General   Sociology,  443-81. 
Ward,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 
Spencer,  The  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Bibliography  of  the  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  I: 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1905. 
Carver,  T.  N.,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ginn. ;  1905. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett;  1909. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ap- 

pleton;   1912. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Macm. ;  1908. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1909. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1905. 
Small,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Univ.  of  Chicago  Pr. ;  1905. 
Small,  A.  W.,  The  Meaning  of   Social   Science,  Univ.  of 

Chicago  Pr.;  1910. 
Small,  A,  W.  and  G.  E.  Vincent,  An  Introduction  to  the 

Study  of  Society,  American  Book;  1894. 
Spencer,  H.,  The  Study  of  Sociology,  Appleton;  1893. 
Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W.,  Sociology,  Putnam;  1903. 
Ward,  L.  F.,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1909. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  I. 

1.  A  Study  of  Social  Progress  in  the  United  States. 

2.  History  of  the  Social  Progress  of  your  own  City. 

3.  Your  Analysis  of  the  Nature  of  Social  Progress. 


12  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

4.  The  Migration  of  Social  Supremacy  Among  the  Nations. 

5.  The  Contrasts  Between  Sociology  and  Socialism. 

6.  The  Relation  of  Sociology  to  Christianity. 

7.  The  Relation  of  Sociology  to  the  Special  Social  Sciences. 

8.  Carlyle  as  a  Forerunner  of  Social  Science. 

9.  'History  of  Communism  in  the  United  States. 

10.  A  Study  of  Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations. 

11.  Ten  Best  Examples  of  Social  Progress. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PHYSICAL  AND  GEOGKAPHICAL  FACTORS 
IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  4.    MAN'S  RELATION  TO  THE  EARTH. 

(1)  The  highly   favored  position  of  the  earth   in  the   solar 
system. 

(2)  Dependence  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  on  the  solar 
system. 

o.  The  day,  the  year,  the  seasons  thus  determined. 

b.  The  safety  of  all  sea-faring  vessels  related  to  the 
positions  of  the  stars. 

c.  The  ideas  of  "permanence"  and  "order"  spring  from 
such  phenomena  as  the  regular  daily  rising  of  the  sun. 

d.  Measurements  of  the  earth  possible  only  by  referring 
to  the  heavenly  bodies. 

(a)  Latitude  and  longitude,  accurate  maps  of  con- 
tinents and  oceans,  boundaries  of  nations  and 
estates  reckoned  by  astronomical  measure- 
ment. 

e.  Man  dependent  on  and  limited  by  the  great  laws  of 
the  universe  over  which  he  has  no  control  and  the 
nature  of  which  he  does  not  fully  understand. 

( 3 )  A  glimpse  at  the  orderly  and  world-embracing  process  by 
which  the  once  uninhabitable  globe  has  come  to  be  man's 
well-appointed  home. 

a.  The  earth  underwent  a  long  series  of  transformations 
before  the  appearance  of  man. 

(a)  Oldest  strata  of  rocks  show  no  signs  of  the 
presence  of  life. 

(b)  After  the  first  evidences  of  life,  higher  and 
higher  strata  of  rock  formations  indicate  the 
appearance  of  higher  and  higher  forms  of  life. 

13 


14  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  A  few,  simple  stone  implements  found  in  the  deposits 
belonging  to  the  glacial  epoch, — a  silent  testimony 
to  the  appearance  of  man. 

c.  Then  came  the  long  struggle  between  earth  and  man 
before   historical   times   and   man's   final   supremacy 
over  other  forms  of  life. 

d.  Man's  adjustment  to  the  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  earth's  crust. 

(a)  Less    than    one-fifth    of  the    earth's    surface 
inhabitable. 

(b)  That    one-fifth    inhabitable    by    virtue    of    a 
mantle  of  rock-waste  of  varying  thickness  and 
quality. 

e.  The  student  of  social  science  has  an  advantage  over 
the  geologist. 

(a)  The  latter  finds  the  world  completed  so  far  as 
need  concern  him. 

(b)  But  the  social  scientist  deals  with  a  growing 
world. 

(c)  He  has  a  right  not  only  to  speculate  about  the 
processes  of  its  growth,  but  also  to  try  to  ac- 
celerate its  growth. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Semple,  Influences  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Chs.  I-IV. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  II. 
Buckle  in  Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  X. 
Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Pt.  L,  Ch.  III. 
Shaler,  Man  and  the  Earth,  Chs.  I,  XIII. 

SECTION  5.     THE     INFLUENCE     OF     GEOGRAPHIC 
AREA  AND  LOCATION  ON  HUMAN  SOCIETY. 

(1)   Small,  naturally  defined  areas  always  harbor  small  groups 
of  markedly  individual  peoples. 

a.  Islands,  peninsulas,  mountain  valleys  are  bars  to  ex- 
pansion and  develop  close  contacts  between  group 
members. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  15 

b.  Involve  handicap  of  numerical  weakness  of  popula- 
tion. 

c.  Easily  encompassed  by  invaders. 

d.  Belgium,   Holland,   Switzerland  exist  today  as  dis- 
tinct nations  only  on  sufferance. 

(2)  In  a  small  area,  a  group  is  likely  to  overestimate  its  own 
size  and  importance. 

a.  In  a  small  area,  people  tend  to  measure  distance  with 
a  yard-stick. 

b.  Judea  clung  with  provincial  bigotry  to  the  narrow, 
tribal  creed  and  repudiated  the  larger  faith  of  Christ. 

c.  Plato's  ideal  democracy  restricted  its  free  citizens  to 
5,040  heads  of  families,  all  living  within  reach  of  the 
agora. 

d.  In  small  New  England,  the  provincial  point  of  view 
has  persisted. 

(a)  Acquiesced  in  the  occlusion  of  the  Mississippi 
River  to  Trans-Allegheny  settlements  by  Spain 
in  1787. 

(b)  Later  opposed  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 

(c)  Opposed  the  acquisition  of  the  Philippines. 

(3)  Larger  the  area,  the  surer  the  guarantee  of  permanence. 

a.  Means  abundant  command  of  the  resources  of  life, 
varied  pursuits,  and  varied  wants. 

(4)  Larger  the  area  under  one  political  control,  the  greater 

the  economic  and  political  independence. 

a.  A  vast  territory  has  enabled  the  United  States  to 
maintain  a  protective  tariff. 

b.  Russia's  immense  area  is  the  military  ally  on  which 
she  can  most  surely  count. 

(a)  The  long  road  to  Moscow  converted  Napo- 
leon's victory  into  a  defeat. 

(5)  Larger  the  area  which  a  civilized  nation  occupies,  the 
more  numerous    are    its    points    of    contact    with    other 
peoples. 

a.  Less  likely  to  have  a  premature  crystallization  of  its 
civilization. 

b.  Ultimately  means   access  to  those  multiform  inter- 
national relations  which  the  ocean  highway  confers. 


16  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Generous  territories  breed  a  wide  outlook  upon  life,  a 

continental  element  in  the  national  mind. 
(6)   Area  itself,  important  as  it  is,  must  yield  to  location. 

a.  No  one   thinks  of   size,   when  mention   is  made  of 
Gibraltar,  Jerusalem,  Athens. 

b.  Holland  owed  her  maritime  supremacy  from  the  13th 
to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  to  her  exceptional 
location  at  the  mouth  of  the  great  Rhine  highway. 

c.  Location  of  Phoenicians  made  them  the  middlemen 
between  Orient  and  Occident. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Semple,    Influences    of   a    Geographic    Environment,    Chs. 

V.-VII. 
Semple,  American  History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions, 

Ch.  I. 

Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History,  Ch.  I. 
Mill,  International  Geography,  Ch.  V. 
Shaler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Ch.  VI. 

SECTION  6.   THE  SOCIAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  OCEANS, 
COAST  LINES,  AND  INLAND  WATERWAYS. 

(1)  The  eternal  unrest  of  moving  waters  has  knocked  at  the 
door  of  human  inertia. 

a.  Flow  of  stream  and  ebb  of  tide  have  sooner  or  later, 
stirred  the  curiosity  of  land-born  barbarians. 

b.  Rivers  by  mere  force  of  gravity  have  carried  man  to 
the  shores  of  the  common  ocean. 

(a)  Then  he  has  followed  timidly  or  involuntarily 
the  ocean  current  or  the  trade-wind. 

(2)  The  sea  which  brought  him,  bars  him  from  his  old  home. 

a.  Wastes  of  water  are  effective  barriers. 

(3)  The  sea  promotes  many-sided  development. 

a.  Sea  induces  nautical  achievements  in  man. 

(a)  Simple  floats  and  rafts  first,  then  devices  to 
secure  displacement,  now  great  floating  sea 
monsters. 

b.  Sea  develops  special  classes  of  industry. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  17 

(a)  Earliest  were  the  classes  of  fishermen. 

(b)  Fisheries  are  the  training  schools  which  fur- 
nish sailors  for  the  merchant  marine. 

c.  Sea  provides  wealth  of  experiences. 

(a)  Had  proportion  of  land  and  water  been  re- 
versed, world  would  have  been  poorer. 

(b)  Branches   of  human    family   would   have   re- 
sembled  each  other  more  closely  but  at  the 
cost  of  development. 

(4)  Best  geographic  advantages  are  at  mouths  of  rivers. 

a.  Participation   in  the   cosmopolitan  civilization  char- 
acteristic of  coastal  regions. 

b.  Opportunity  for  both  inland  and  maritime  commerce. 

c.  The   fertile,  alluvial  soil  yields    support    for    dense 
populations. 

d.  Politically,  the  up-country  may  be  bottled  up  at  the 
mouth  of  a  large  river. 

(5)  River  highways  are  bases  of  commercial  pre-eminence. 

a.  They  are  nature-made  paths  into  new  countries. 

b.  Cheapness   of   river-travel   tends   to   check   the   con- 
struction of  high-roads  and  railroads. 

(a)  Later  to  check  railway  freight  rates. 

(b)  In  South  and  in  Central  America,  railroads 
are  still  mere  adjuncts  of  river  and  coastwise 
routes. 

c.  The  inland  waterways  movement  has  lately  been  re- 
started. 

d.  Pacific  trade  will  continue  to  be  exploited  from  the 
Atlantic  basis  because  Atlantic  peoples  have  wider 
and  more  accessible  lands  as  the  basis  of  their  mari- 
time operations. 

(6)  A  river  system  is  a  system  of  communication. 

a.  Rivers  unite;  they  are  poor  boundaries. 

b.  Every  river  tends  to  become  a  common  artery  feed- 
ing all  the  life  of  its  basin. 

(a)  Makes  a  bond  of  union  between  people  living 
among  its  remoter  sources  and  those  settled  at 
the  mouth. 


18  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(7)   Indentations  of  land  by  the  sea  open  up  the  interior  of 
continents. 

a.  Every  protrusion  of  an  ocean  artery  into  the  heart  of 
a  continent  makes  that  heart  feel  the  life  on  far-off, 
unseen  shores. 
Suggested  Readings: 

*Semple,  The  Influences  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Chs. 

VIII-XI. 
Semple,  American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Conditions, 

Chs.  II.,  XIII.,  XIX. 
Brigham,     Geographic     Influences     in    American    History, 

Ch.  IV. 
Gregory,    Keller,    and    Bishop,    Physical    and    Commercial 

Geography,  Chs.  I.,  IV. 
Murray,  J.  and  H.  R.  Mill,  International  Geography,  Ch.  VI. 

SECTION   7.    THE   SOCIAL  INFLUENCE   OF   PLAINS 
AND  DESERTS. 

(1)  Well  watered  lowlands  invite  expansion — ethnic,  commer- 
cial, political. 

a.  They   make   for   uniformity   of   life   conditions,    for 
monotony  of  climate  as  well  as  of  relief. 

(2)  Plains  are  not  favorable  to  early  development. 

a.  Their  lack  of  contrasting  environments,  their  wide 
extent  and  absence  of  barriers,  put  chains  on  prog- 
ress. 

b.  Show   a   paucity   of  varied   geographical   conditions 
and  of  resulting  contrasts  in  the  population. 

c.  Larger  eastern  half  of  Europe  embraced  in  the  plains 
of  Russia  and  Poland  shows  monotony  in  every  as- 
pect of  human  life. 

d.  Sameness  leaves  its  stamp  on  everything. 

(3)  In  boundless,  arid  steppes,  nature  has  made  the  homes 
of  restless,  rootless  people. 

a.  Migration  is  permanent. 

b.  While  the  people  move,  progress  stands  still. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  19 

c.  Waterless    wastes   permit   no   accumulation   of   pro- 
ductive wealth  beyond  increasing  flocks  and  herds. 

d.  Not  only  aridity,  but  excessive  cold  condemns  a  peo- 
ple to  nomadic  life. 

e.  Population  must  forever  remain  too  sparse  to  attain 
historical  significance. 

/.   Constant  movement  reduces  impedimenta  to  a  mini- 
mum. 

(a)  No  furniture  in  their  tents. 

(b)  Keep   their   meager   supply   of   clothing  and 
utensils  neatly  packed. 

(c)  Only  desirable  form  of  capital  is  that  which 
transports  itself — flocks  and  herds. 

g.  Seasonal  migration. 

(a)   Move  down  rivers  in  winter  to  lowlands;  up 
rivers  in  summer  to  the  hills  and  mountains. 
h.  Deserts  make  marauders. 

(a)  Seasons  of  unusual  drought  give  rise  to  ma- 
rauding expeditions. 

(b)  Predatory  excursions  result  from  want. 

(c)  Robber  is  a  title  of  honor. 

(d)  Constant  practice  in  riding,  scouting,  use  of 
arms,  physical  endurance  tested  by  centuries 
of  exertion  and  hardship,  make  every  nomad 
a  soldier. 

(e)  Hazardous  life  of  the  desert  makes  the  Arab 
the  bravest  of  mankind. 

i.   Nature-made  necessity  of  scattering  in  small  groups 
induces  in  the  nomad  a  spirit  of  independence. 

(a)  The  Bedouin  is  personally  free. 

(b)  Political  organization  is  lacking. 

(c)  Desert  is  the  last  part  of  earth's  surface  to  yield 
to  conquest  from  without — conquest  pays  only 
as  a  police  measure. 

j.  Power  of   fasting  developed — one  meal  of  a  Euro- 
pean would  suffice  for  six  Arabs. 

k.  Checks    to    population — three    children    constitute   a 
large  family  among  the  Bedouins. 


20  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(4)  Deserts  and  steppes  lay  an  arresting  hand  on  progress. 

a.  No  alteration  in  customs  or  mode  of  life  from  age 
to  age. 

(5)  Desert-born  genius  for  religion. 

a.  Mind,  finding  scant  material  for  deduction,  falls  back 
upon  contemplation. 

b.  From  immense  monotony  of  their  environment  comes 
the  impression  of  unity. 

c.  Inevitable  gravitation  towards  monotheism. 

d.  Three  great  monotheistic  religions  of  the  world  are 
closely   connected   in   their   origin   and   development 
with  the  deserts  of  Syria  and  Arabia. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Semple,  Influence  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Ch.  XIV. 

Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History,  Chs. 
V,  VIII. 

Gregory,  Keller,  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, 38-48. 

Salisbury,  Physiography,  16-32. 

Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  15-30. 

SECTION  8.       THE  SOCIAL  EFFECTS  OF  A  MOUN- 
TAIN ENVIRONMENT. 

(1)  Man  always  feels  the  pull  of  gravity. 

a.  Maintenance   of   life   in   high   altitude    is   always   a 
struggle. 

b.  At  first,  mountains  become  mere  transit  districts. 

c.  Often  remain  as  great  inert  masses  in  the  midst  of 
active  historical  lands. 

(2)  Mountain  passes  are  nature-made  thoroughfares. 

a.  Passes  draw  to  themselves  migration,  travel,  trade, 
war. 

b.  Traversed  alike  by  undisciplined  hordes  and  by  or- 
ganized armies,  by   wagon-trains   and   by   transcon- 
tinental railroads. 

(3)  Mountain  boundaries  are  rarely  by  nature  impartial. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  21 

o.  A  wide  zone  of  food  supply  and  habitation  on  the 
gentler  slope. 

b.  They  lower  the  bars  to  the  people  on  one  side,  hold 
them  relentlessly  in  place  to  the  people  on  the  other 
side. 

c.  Himalayas  are  flanked  by  the  teeming  population  of 
India;  on  the  other  side  are  the  scattered  nomadic 
tribes  of  Tibet. 

d.  Western  side  of  the  Scandinavian  range  (Norway) 
has  the  warm  air  of  the  Atlantic  westerlies;  on  the 
eastern  side,  Sweden  feels  all  the  rigor  of  a  sub-artic 
climate. 

(4)  Mountain  peoples  the  world  over  have  resorted  to  ter- 

race agriculture. 

a.  Mountainous   islands   develop   terrace   tillage   in   its 
most   pronounced   form. 

(5)  Utilization  of  mountain  pastures  for  stock-raising  is  al- 
most universal. 

a.  They  have  generally  remained  communal  property. 

(6)  High  altitudes  with  their  long,  severe  winters  stimulate 
industries  in  the  home. 

a.  Almost   everywhere  native   mountain   industries   are 
in  a  high  state  of  development. 

b.  Consists  of  carved  wood,  artistic  metal  work  in  silver 
and  copper,  the  famous  Kashmir  shawls,  finest  violin 
strings  in  the  world. 

(7)  Marauding  propensities  are  marked  among  all  retarded 
mountain  peoples  of  modern  times. 

a.  They  solve  the  problem  of  deficient  food  by  raiding 
valleys  and  lowlands. 

b.  Conquest   of   mountain   peoples   always   expensive — 
invader  has  always  two  enemies  to  fight,  nature  and 
the  armed  foe. 

(8)  Political    dismemberment   is    the  inherent    weakness    of 
mountain  peoples. 

a.  Political   consolidation  is   always   forced   upon  them 
from  without. 

b.  Swiss  Republic  is  result  of  threatened  encroachments 
from  outside. 


22  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Every  aspect  of   environment  makes   against   social 

integration. 
(9)   Mountains  are  often  museums  of  social  antiquity. 

a.  "To  have  and  to  hold"  is  the  motto. 

b.  Antiquated  races  and  languages  abound. 

c.  Religion  is  orthodox  to  the  last  degree. 

d.  Judean  mountains  performed  the  inestimable  service 
for  the  world  of  keeping  pure  and  undefiled  the  first 
and   last   great   gift   of   the   desert — a   monotheistic 
faith. 

e.  The  mountain  dweller  is  essentially  conservative. 

/.  Little  reaches  him  from  the  outside  to  stimulate  him. 
g.  Has  a  suspicion  toward  strangers. 
h.  His  loves  and  hatreds  are  pronounced. 
*.  When  he  comes  down  to  the  plains,  he  is  a  formidable 
competitor  because  of  his  strong  muscles,   unjaded 
nerves,  iron  purpose,  indifference  to  luxury. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Semple,  Influences  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Chs.  XII., 

XVI. 
Semple,  American  History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions, 

Chs.  V,  VIII. 
Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History,  Ch. 

III. 

Gregory,  Keller  &  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, 50-54,  62-65. 

SECTION  9.    THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE  ON  SO^ 
CIETY. 

(1)  Climate  fixes  the  boundaries  of  human  habitations. 

a.  In  Arctic  latitudes,  high  altitudes,  arid  regions, — 
by  drawing  the  dead-line  to  all  life. 

(2)  Moisture  is  essential  to  all  that  life  upon  which  human 
existence  depends. 

a.  Grazing  capacity  and  wheat  yield  of  southern  Aus- 
tralia increase  almost  regularly  with  every  added 
inch  of  rainfall. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  23 

b.  Deserts    which    yield    nothing    are    purely    climatic 
phenomena. 

(3)  Nature  has  fixed  the  mutual  destiny  of  tropical  and  tem- 
perate zones, — as  complementary  regions  of  trade. 

a.  Hot  belt  produces  numerous  things  that  never  grow 
in  colder  countries. 

b.  A  much  shorter  list  of  products  coupled,  however, 
with  greater  industrial  efficiency  is  restricted  to  the 
temperate  zone. 

(4)  Climate  influences  man  indirectly. 

a.  Dictates  what  crops  he  may  raise. 

b.  'Has  it  in  its  power  to  affect  radically  the  size  of  his 
harvest. 

c.  Decides  which  flocks  as  herds  he  shall  keep, — rein- 
deer, camels,  llamas,  horses,  or  horned  cattle. 

d.  It  decides  the  character  of  his  food,  clothing,  dwell- 
ing, and  ultimately  of  his  civilization. 

(5)  In  general,  there  is  a  close  correspondence  between  cli- 
mate and  temperament. 

a.  Northern  peoples  of  Europe  are  energetic,  provident, 
serious,  thoughtful,  rather  than  emotional,  cautious 
rather  than  impulsive. 

b.  Southerners  of  sub-tropical  Mediterranean  basin  are 
easy-going,  gay,  emotional,  imaginative. 

c.  Man  of  the  colder  habitat  is  more  domestic. 

d.  With  the  southerner  of  the  Tropics,  it  is  "easy  come, 
easy  go" — he  therefore  suffers  more  frequently  in  a 
crisis. 

e.  Everywhere  a  cold  climate  puts  a  steadying  hand  on 
the  human  heart  and  brain — it  gives  an  autumn  tinge 
to  life. 

(6)  History  reveals  a  steady  influx  from  colder  into  tropical 

and  subtropical  lands. 

a.  Followed  by  enervation  and  loss  of  national  efficiency. 

(a)  Due  to  debilitating  heat. 

(b)  Partly  to  easier  conditions  of  living. 

b.  Germans  who  recently  have  colonized  southern  Brazil 
show  marked  deterioration. 


24  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(7)   Man  was  born  in  the  Tropics,  but  grew  up  in  the  Tem- 
perate zone. 

a.  Where  he  has  remained  in  the  tropics,  he  has  gen- 
erally suffered  arrested  development. 

b.  His  nursery  has  kept  him  a  child. 

c.  The  tropics  have  been  the  cradle  of  humanity,  the 
temperate  zone  has  been  the  cradle  and  school  of 
civilization. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Semple,  Influences  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Ch.  XVII. 

Dickson,  H.  N.  in  Mill,  International  Geography,  Ch.  VII. 

Gregory,  Keller  &  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, Chs.  V.,  VII. 

Bowman,  Forest   Physiography,   Ch.  IX. 

Huntington,  Changes  of  Climate  and  History,  Amer.  Hist. 
Rev.,  Jan.  1913,  213-232. 

SECTION    10.    CONSERVATION    OF    NATURAL    RE- 
SOURCES. 

(1)  The  verv  magnitude  of  natural  resources  has  made  the 
United  States  wasteful. 

a.  Many  resources  have  already  been  so  exhausted  that 
a  few  years  will  see  an  end  of  their  use  in  large  com- 
mercial quantities. 

b.  While  coal  and  iron  will  last  longer,  yet  when  gone 
they  can  never  be  replaced. 

c.  The  time  has  come  when  the  United  States  can  no 
longer  wastefully  use   her   resources   without   inter- 
fering with  future  development. 

d.  While  other  nations  have  passed  into  decay,  none  has 
ever  exhausted  its  resources  so  early  in  its  history. 

(2)  Conservation  of  the  soil — the  greatest  natural  resource. 

a.  The  soil  is  a  source  of  all  life, — from  it  comes  all 
food,  the  materials  with  which  homes  are  built  and 
from   which   clothing  is   made. 

b.  The  formation  of  soil  from  beneath  is  scarcely  more 
than  a  foot  in  10,000  years. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.     . 

^   • 

e.  Germany  has  been  cultivated  nearly  1800  years, "trie- 
soil  is  naturally  not  so  productive  nor  the  climate  so 
favorable  yet  the  wheat-yield  there  averages  more 
than  twice  as  much  as  in  this  country. 

d.  Conservation  means  that  the  United  States  will  not 
allow  her  farms  to  lose  $500,000,000  in  value  yearly 
by  letting  the  rich  top-soil  drain  off  into  the  rivers. 

e.  Conservation  means  that  the  land  shall  not  be  robbed 
steadily  of  the  elements  that  produce  good  crops  and 
that  nothing  be  put  back  into  the  soil. 

(3)  Conservation  of  coal, — in  the  rush  of  a   few  people  to 
turn  coal  into  money,  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  it  is  wasted. 

a.  Water-power  remains  unused  while  millions  of  tons 
of  coal  are  burned  annually  in  doing  the  work  that 
water-power  might  do  better. 

(4)  Conservation  of  water-power, — estimated  that  there  is  now 
running  idly  over  falls,  dams,  etc.,  over  30,000,000  horse- 
power of  energy. 

a.  Enough  power  is  wasted  to  run  every  factory,  turn 
every  wheel,  move  every  electric  car,  supply  every 
light  and  power  station  in  the  country. 

b.  Geographical  Survey  states  that  by  storing  the  flood- 
waters  and  regulating  the  flow  of  streams,  the  large 
rivers  may  be  made  to   furnish   150,000,000  horse- 
power. 

(5)  Conservation  of  forests, — the  forests  of  the  United  States 
will  not  last  longer  than  about  thirty  years. 

a.  Of  all  wood  cut,  fully  two-thirds  is  wasted  in  the 
forests,  left  to  decay  or  destroyed  by  forest  fires. 

(6)  Conservation  doesn't  mean  the  locking  up  of  natural  re- 
sources, nor  a  hindrance  to  real  progress  in  any  direction, 
but  a  careful  use  of  these  resources  in  the  light  of  the  needs 
of  future  generations. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Van  Hise,  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources,  Pt.  V. 
Gregory,  Checking  the  Waste,  Chs.  I-IV. 
Coman,  Industrial  History  of  the  United  States,  Ch.  XI. 
Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  Ch.  XXXIII. 


26  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Pinchot,  Fight  for  Conservation,  40-52. 
Pinchot,  A  Primer  of  Forestry,  Pt.  I. 
Shaler,  Man  and  the  Earth,  Chs.  II,  III. 

SECTION  11.    A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  AND 
GEOGRAPHIC  FACTORS. 

(1)  A  people  and  their  land,  each  unthinkable  without  the 
other. 

a.  A  land  is  fully  comprehended  only  when  studied  in 
the  light  of  its  influence  upon  its  people,  and  a  people 
cannot    be    understood    apart    from    their    field    of 
activities. 

b.  Wars,  which  constitute  so  large  a  part  of  political 
history,  have  usually  been  aimed  more  or  less  directly 
at  acquisition  or  retention  of  territory. 

c.  The  land  occupied  by  a  primitive  tribe  or  a  highly 
organized  state  is  the  underlying  material  bond  hold- 
ing society  together. 

(a)  The  broader  this  physical  base,  the  richer  its 
resources,  and  the  more  favorable  the  climate, 
the  greater  may  be  its  ultimate  historical 
significance. 

d.  When  a  state  has  taken  advantage  of  all  of  its  natural 
conditions,   these   conditions   become   a   part   of  the 
state. 

(a)  They  modify  the  people  and  are  modified  in 
turn  by  the  people — till  the  people  cannot  be 
understood  apart  from  their  physical  and  geog- 
raphic bases. 

(2)  Every  advance  to  a  higher  state  of  civilization  has  meant  a 
progressive  decrease  in  the  amount  of  land  necessary  for 
the  support  of  the  individual. 

a.  And  a  progressive  increase  in  the  relations  between 
man  and  his  habitat. 

(3)  Progress  involves  an  increasing  exploitation  of  natural  ad- 
vantages. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  27 

a.  Man  multiplies  his  dependencies  upon  nature. 

b.  While  increasing  their  sum  total,  he  diminishes  the 
force  of  each. 

c.  The  Delaware  Indian  depended  upon  the  forests  alone 
for  fuel,  the  Pennsylvania  citizen  today  has  six  or 
seven  choices. 

(a)  But  fuel  was  a  necessity  to  the  Indian  only  for 
warmth  and  cooking;  while  today,  it  is  a  nec- 
essity in  the  manufacture  of  nearly  every  arti- 
cle that  the  modern  Pennsylvanian  uses. 

d.  Man's  dependence  on  nature  has  become  more  far- 
reaching,  though  less  conspicuous,  and  especially  less 
arbitrary. 

(4)  Man  forms  a  partnership  with  nature,  contributing  brains 
and  labor  while  she  provides  the  raw  material  in  ever 
more  abundant  forms. 

a.  As  a  result,  civilized  man  receives  a  better  and  better 
living  than  the  savage  who  like  a  mendicant  accepts 
what  nature  is  pleased  to  dole  out  and  lives  under  the 
tyranny  of  her  caprices. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Semple,  Influences  of  a  Geographic  Environment,  Ch.  II. 
S'haler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Ch.  V. 
Mill,  International  Geography,  Ch.  I. 
Patten,  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  I. 

Bibliography  of  the  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  II. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1905. 
Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  Long- 
mans; 1912. 

Bowman,  L,  Forest  Physiography,  Wiley;  1911. 
Brigham,  A.  P.,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History, 

Ginn;  1903. 

Carver,  T.  N.,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ginn;  1905. 
Chisholm,    G.    G.,    Handbook    of    Commercial    Geography, 

Longmans ;  1908. 

Coman,  K.,  Industrial  History  of  the  United  States,  Macm. ; 
1910. 


28  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Fairbanks,  A.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner's;  1910. 

Gregory,  Keller  and  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial 
Geography,  Ginn;  1910. 

Mill,  H.  R.,  International  Geography,  Appleton,  1909. 

Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Macm. ;  1907. 

Pinchot,  G.,  The  Fight  for  Conservation,  Doubleday,  Page; 
1910. 

Pinchot,  G.,  A  Primer  of  Forestry,  Bui.  24,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agricult.;  1900. 

Salisbury,  R.  D.,  Physiography,  Holt;  1909. 

Semple,  E.  C.,  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment, 
Holt;  1911. 

Semple,  E.  C.,  American  History  and  its  Geographic  Condi- 
tions, Houghton,  Mifflin;  1903. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Scribner's;  1891. 

Shaler,  N.  S'.,  Man  and  the  Earth,  Chautauqua  Pr. ;  1907. 

Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  in 
the  United  States,  Macm.;  1910. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  IL 

1.  The  Effect  of  Climate  and  Geography  on  the  Develop- 
ment of  your  City. 

2.  A  Social  Study  of  the  Kentucky  Mountaineers. 

3.  Electricity  as  a  Social  Instrument. 

4.  The  Geography  of  the  Civil  War. 

5.  Mountain  Barriers  as  Social  Divides. 

6.  Geographical  Distribution  of  Cities. 

7.  Geographical  Distribution  of  Railroads. 

8.  A    Comparison    of    Tropical    Peoples    with    Temperate 
Peoples. 

9.  The  Social  Uses  of  Chemistry. 

10.  River  Valleys  as  Paths  of  Migration  and  Commerce. 

11.  The  Work  of  the  Forestry  Service. 

12.  The  Life  and  Work  of  Gifford  Pinchot. 

13  Social  Achievements  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
14.  History   and    Methods    of    Operation    of    the    Weather 
Bureau. 


CHAPTER  III. 

BIOLOGICAL  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  12.    BIOLOGICAL  LAWS  AND  SOCIETY. 

(1)  Introduction  to  the  biological  factors. 

a.  At  this  point,  transition  is  made  from  a  study  of  the 
inorganic  to  a  study  of  the  organic  factors  in  society. 

(2)  Organisms  are  distinguished  from  inorganic  substances  by 
the  following  characteristics. 

a.  Organization :  the  power  to  make  over  inorganic  sub- 
stances into  living  tissues. 

b.  Motion:  the  power  of  spontaneous  movement  in  re- 
sponse to  stimuli. 

c.  Sensation:  the  power  of  being  sensitive  to  external 
stimuli. 

d.  Reproduction :  the  power  of  producing  new  beings 
like  themselves. 

e.  Adaptation :  the  power  of  responding  to  external  con- 
ditions in  a  way  useful  to  the  organism. 

(3)  The  different  phases  of  universal  evolution. 

a.  Cosmic    evolution:    deals    with   the   development   of 
world's  and  how  the  earth  came  to  its  present  stage. 

b.  Organic  evolution :  deals  with  the  evolution  of  living 
forms,  of  which  man  represents  one  group. 

c.  Evolution  of  mind :  deals  with  the  use  of  the  keenest 
intelligences  among  organisms. 

d.  Social  evolution :  deals  with  the  development  of  the 
highest  types  of  associating  groups. 

(4)  Factors  at  work  in  organic  evolution. 

a.  The  multiplication  of  organisms  in  some  geometric 
ratio  through  reproduction. 

(a)  It  is  not  infrequent  for  a  people  to  double  its 
numbers  every  twenty-five  years. 
29 


30  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  Continuity  of  the  species  or  racial  type  is  secured 
through  heredity — the  law  that  like  begets  like. 

c.  Every  new  form  born  in  the  organic  world,  while  it 
resembles  its  parents  and  species,  is  subject  to  varia- 
tion within  certain  limits. 

(a)   Man  is  the  most  variable,  in  this  sense,  of  all 
organisms. 

d.  The  struggle  for  existence. 

(a)  Individuals   in   all   species  are  born   in   large 
numbers;  competition  results,  the  fittest  sur- 
vive, the  inferior  perish. 

(b)  Thus  the  type  is  raised  through  natural  selec- 
tion, i.  e.,  through  the  elimination  of  the  unfit. 

e.  Besides  struggle  and  conflict,  co-operation  is  a  factor 
in  organic  evolution. 

(a)  Perhaps  the  chief  source  of  this  co-operation 
is  to  be  found  in  the  rearing  of  offspring. 

(b)  Only  in  human  social  life  does  co-operation 
attain  its  full  development. 

(c)  Human  society  tries  to  fit  as  many  as  possible 
to  survive ;  not  only  to  survive,  but  to  live  well. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ellwood;  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  27-51. 

Ward,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  III. 

Wallace,  The  World  of  Life,  Ch.  I. 

Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Evolution  and  Animal  Life,  Ch.  III. 

Dealey  and  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 


SECTION  13.    HEREDITY:  A  CONSERVING  FACTOR. 

(1)  Heredity:   The  law  that  like  begets  like. 

a.   (Several  simple  illustration  may  be  given  here.) 

(2)  In  describing  the  facts  of  hereditary  resemblance  between 
successive  generations,  two  methods  are  available. 

a.  The  Mendelian  formula  which  deals  with  individuals 
separately  and  with  the  transmission  of  single  char- 
acteristics. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  31 

b.  The  statistical  which  deals  with  the  group  as  the  unit 
and  considers  the  individual  in  the  general  average. 
(a)   In  many  ways  the  former  is  of  greater  im- 
portance because  of  its  more  exact  and  more 
particular  nature. 

(3)  The  Mendelian  law  of  heredity. 

a.  Characteristics    are    transmitted    as    single  or  "unit 
characters." 

b.  In  such  transmission,  certain  characteristics  are  likely 
to  be  "dominant"  while  others  are  "recessive." 

c.  Illustrated  by  the  transmission  of  color  in  the  Anda- 
lusian  fowl. 

d.  Pure  bred  now  means  pure  bred  with  reference  to 
certain  traits  only. 

(a)  An  individual  may  be  pure  bred  in  certain  of 
his  traits  and  hybrid  in  others. 

e.  A  pure  bred  may  be  produced  by  a  hybrid  mated  with 
another  hybrid. 

(4)  Statistical   description  of  heredity. 

a.  Regression:  with  a  few  exceptions,  offspring  deviate 
less  than  their  parents  from  the  average  of  the  whole 
group. 

b.  The  coefficient    of    heredity — a    number    which  ex- 
presses the  average  closeness  and  regularity  between 
all  the  plus  and  minus   deviations   from  the  group 
average. 

c.  Susceptibility   to   tuberculosis   is   double   the   normal 
rate  among  first-born  children. 

d.  When  both  parents   are  congenitally  deaf,  26%   of 
the  offspring  are  deaf  (Fay,  1898). 

(a)  If  the  parents  are  related  (belong  to  the  same 
deaf  mute  strain),  the  proportion  of  deaf-mute 
children  is  greater. 

e.  "Old  age"  or  longevity,  as  such,  is  not  inherited,  but 
traits  such  as  absence  of  defects  of  bodily  structure, 
vital  resistance  to  the  commoner  virulent  forms  of 
disease  are  inherited. 


32  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  When  these  are  coupled  with  favorable  en- 
vironmental conditions — then  "old  age"  is  pos- 
sible. 

/.  "Pauperism"  and  "crime"  are  not  necessarily  inher- 
ited, but  mental  defectiveness,  feeble-mindedness,  etc., 
which  may  lead  to  pauperism  and  crime  are  subject 
to  laws  of  heredity. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Kellicott,  The  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution,  77-130. 
Davenport,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics,  Ch.  II. 
McKim,  Heredity  and  Human  Progress,  Ch.  III. 
Doncaster,  Heredity,  Ch.  VIII. 
Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  289-300. 

SECTION  14.    VARIATION:  A  MEANS  OF  PROGRESS. 

(1)  Every  organismal  characteristic  whether  "unit"  or  com- 
plex is  subject  to  variation. 

a.  The  variation  may  be  due  to  circumstances  within  the 
germ-cell,  or  to  the  environing  conditions,  or  to  both. 

(2)  Variation  appears  during  an  organism's  period  of  develop- 
ment. 

a.  At  the  beginning  of  its   existence  every  individual 
(among  higher  organisms)  has  the  form  of  a  single 
organic  cell — the  germ-cell. 

(a)  It  shows  a  comparatively  slight  degree  of  dif- 
ferentiation   of    structure,    and    may    be    of 
microscopic  proportions. 

(b)  The  parts  of  the  germ-cell  bear  no  actual  or 
visible   resemblance  to   the   parts   of   the   or- 
ganism into  which  they  rapidly  develop. 

b.  Somehow  the  characteristics  of  the  germ-cell  lead  to 
other  characteristics,   and  these  to  still   more  com- 
plex  characteristics. 

(a)  Until  a  period  of  comparative  changelessness 
is  reached  when  we  say  that  development  is 
completed. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  33 

c.  This  development  is  fundamentally  a  period  of  re- 
action between  the  germ  and  its  surrounding  condi- 
tions. 

(a)   It  is  during  this  development  that  variations 
appear. 

(3)  Two  distinct  kinds  of  variation:  variability  and  mutation. 

a.  Variability — small  fluctuations  in  any  and  every  char- 
acteristic centering  about  an  average  or  mean. 

(a)  Index  of  variability — possible    to    determine 
the  average  amount  by  which  each  individual 
of  the  group  deviates  from  the  group  average. 

(b)  Possible  to  determine  quite  definitely  the  gen- 
eral   distribution    as    to    future    height   of    a 
thousand  individual  children. 

(c)  Men  are  twice  more  variable  in  weight  than 
in  stature. 

b.  Mutations — these  are  variations  proper. 

(a)  Mutations  are  abrupt  changes  of  the  average 
or  type  condition  to  a  new  condition  or  value 
which  then  becomes  a  new  center  of  fluctuat- 
ing variability. 

(b)  Essential   difference  between   variability   and 
mutations  is  with  reference  to  the  inheritance 
of  the  variation  in  case  of  mutation. 

(c)  In  the  case  of  variability,  the  offspring  tend  to 
be  nearer  the  group  average  than  the  parents ; 
in  the  case  of  mutations,  the  offspring  have 
approximately  the  same  average  as  their  im- 
mediate parents. 

(4)  By  means  of  mutations  and  possibly  by  variability  new 
types  are  formed,  and  hence  new  influences  appear  in  the 
course  of  social  progress. 

Suggested  Readings : 
Wallace,  The  World  of  Life,  Ch.  VII. 
Doncaster,  Heredity,  Chs.  II.,  III. 
McFarland,  Biology,  Ch.  XL 
Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Evolution  and  Animal  Life,  Chs.  II.,  IX. 


34  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

SECTION  15.     MAN'S  RELATION  TO  THE  FAUNA  AND 
FLORA  OF  THE  WORLD. 

(1)  Animals  used  by  man. 

a.  As   servants   and   friends   of   man — out   of    150,000 
species  of  animals,  but  forty-seven  have  been  domes- 
ticated. 

b.  Animals  used  as  food — all  races  have  fed  in  part  at 
least,  on  the  flesh  of  animals,  either  raw  or  cooked. 

(a)   Mammals  and  birds  that  are  wholly  carniver- 
ous  have  been  rejected  as  food  by  man. 

c.  Clothing  from  animals — hair  of  certain  mammals  is 
used  as  a  fabric  for  cloth,  the  wool  of  sheep  being 
most  valuable. 

(a)  Likewise  the  fine-spun  covering  of  the  larvae 
and  chrysalids  of  a  white  moth — silk. 

(b)  Furs  and  skins  of  many  animals  formed  the 
chief  clothing  of  primitive  man  and  still  largely 
used  by  two  extremes  in  society :  the  fashion- 
able and  the  primitive. 

(c)  Most  valuable  is  the  fur  of  the  North  Pacific 
sea-otter,  a  single  skin  often  bringing  $1,000. 

d.  Animals  as  ornaments — includes  furs  and  plumes,  but 
the  most  valuable  ornament  derived  from  any  animal 
is  the  pearl  from  the  pearl-oyster. 

e.  Animal  products  used  in  the  arts — leather,  oil,  ivory, 
whalebone,  ambergris. 

(2)  Plants  used  by  man. 

a.  As  fuel — nearly  all  fuel  is  of  vegetable  origin. 

b.  As  timber — three-fourths  of  the  world's  lumber  sup- 
ply is  furnished  by  about  forty  species  of  cone-bear- 
ing trees  (the  pines)  and  by  the  leading  broad-leaved 
trees  (oaks,  hickory,  etc.). 

(a)  Full  value  of  thoroughly  seasoned  woods  is 
nearly  proportional  to  their  weight  per  cubic 
foot. 

(b)  In  recognition  of  the  service  of  trees,  forestry 
has  developed — includes  scientific  tree-cutting, 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  35 

prevention  of  forest  fires,  exterminating  de- 
structive fungi  and  harmful  insects,  tree- 
planting. 

c.  Plant  products  used  in  manufacture — in  tanning,  as 
dyes,  varnishes. 

d.  Medicinal  plants  formed  the  basis  of  the  work  of  the 
medicine  men  in  all  primitive  groups,  and  are  still 
important. 

e.  Plants  used  as  fertilizers — clovers  and  alfalfas,  due 
to  the  power  which  their  root  tubercles  have  of  utiliz- 
ing the  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

f.  Plant  fibres — used  in  making  thread,  cordage,  rope; 
while  from  the  hairs  which  clothe  the  seed  of  the 
cotton  plant  all  cotton  goods  are  manufactured. 

g.  As  food  products  for  animals — especially  the  grasses 
and  clovers. 

h.  As  food  products  for  human  use — includes  grains, 
seeds,  fleshy  pulps,  edible  leaves,  shoots,  tubers  and 
roots. 

(a)  Grain  of  the  wheat  most  important  because  of 
its  palatableness,  high  food  value,  and  ready 
digestibility. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Jordan,  Kellogg  and  -Heath,  Animal  Studies,  Ch.  XXVII. 
*Bergen  and  Davis,  Principles  of  Botany,  Ch.  XLI. 
Gregory,  Keller  and  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, 250-95. 

Thomson,  in  Mill,  International  Geography,  Ch.  VIII. 
Shaler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Ch.  IV. 

SECTION  16.     MICRO-ORGANISMS  AND  HUMAN  LIFE. 

(1)  General  classification  of  micro-organisms — (a)  molds  and 
fungi;   (b)  yeasts    and    processes    of    fermentation;   (c) 
bacteria;    (d)    available    knowledge    of    invisible    micro- 
organisms. 

(2)  Micro-biology  of  the  soil. 


36  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Under  the   attack    of    bacteria    and    other    micro- 
organisms, the  various  organic  debris  in  the  soil  are 
split  into  relatively  small  chemical  fragments. 

(a)  Carbon  is  restored  to  the  air  as  carbon  dioxide 
and  nitrogen  is  changed  into  ammonia  and 
nitrates. 

b.  Work  of  the  micro-organisms  hastens  the  weathering 
of  the  rock-particles  and  makes  available  thereby  the 
mineral  portion  of  plant-food. 

c.  Micro-organisms    live    in    the    root-tubercles    of   the 
clovers  and  alfalfa  and  are  an  indispensable  factor  in 
returning  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

(3)  Microbial  diseases  of  plants — in  the  form  of  blights  at- 
tacking alfalfa,  oats,  pear-trees,  the  rot  of  potato,  the  wilt 
of  sweet  corn,  etc. 

(4)  Micro-biology  of  special  industries. 

a.  In  preserving    foods    by    cold    temperature  and  by 
chemicals,  the  methods  are  intended  to  retard  or  in- 
hibit the  activity  of  micro-organisms. 

b.  In  preservation  of  foods  by  pasteurization  and  sterili- 
zation and  by  drying,  the  destruction  of  the  decom- 
posing micro-organisms  results. 

c.  Alcohol  products  the  result  of  fermentation  due  to 
bacteria. 

d.  Raising  of  dough  in  bread-making  caused  by  pro- 
duction of  carbon  dioxide  by  yeast  organisms. 

e.  Lactic  acid  microbes  cause  milk  to  turn  sour — this 
change   dreaded   by   the   milk-man   is   used   by   the 
cheese-maker. 

(5)  Microbes  as  scavengers — one  of  the  principal  functions  of 
microbes. 

a.  Microbes  in  upper  layers  of  the  earth,  and  to  a  less 
extent  in  air  and  water,  oxidize  waste  organic  mat- 
ter to  carbon  dioxide,  water,  etc. 

(6)  Pathogenic  bacteria — causing  disease  in  man — pneumonia, 
typhoid,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  etc. 

a.  Main  sub-divisions  —  spherical  forms,  rod-forms, 
spiral  forms. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  37 

b.  In  chapter  IV  of  this  Syllabus  on  the  Hygienic  and 
Eugenic  Factors   in   Social   Progress,   Section   19  is 
devoted  to  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  disease-producing 
bacteria. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Marshall,  Microbiology,  Pt.  I.  Ch.  III. 
Woodhead,  Bacteria,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Evolution  and  Animal  Life,  Ch.  XVII. 
McFarland,  Biology,  Ch.  XIV. 

Davison,  The  Human  Body  and  Health   (Advanced)   Chs. 
VI.,  VII. 

SECTION  17.    BIOLIGICAL   BASES    OF    THE    SOCIAL 
INSTINCTS  AND  IMPULSES. 

(1)  The  instincts  refer  to  inherited  tendencies  which  are  the 
essential  motive  powers  of  all  action. 

a.  Racial  characters  that  have  been  slowly  evolved  in 
the  process  of  adaptation  of  species  to  their  environ- 
ment. 

b.  Insect  life  affords  perhaps  the  most  striking  examples 
of  purely  instinctive  action,  also  the  young  squirrel 
burying  nuts,  the  terrier  yapping  at  the  sight  of  his 
quarry. 

(2)  The  impulses  of  self-preservation  or  of  survival  are  in 
general  the  controlling  animal  impulses. 

a.  Their  outward  expression  may  be  temporarily  checked 
by  the  intrusion  of  other  highly  organized  impulses. 

b.  Impulses  of  attacking,  righting,  pugnacity — the  con- 
dition of  their  excitement  is  opposition  to  the  free 

exercise  of  any  impulse. 

c.  Impulse  of  flight,  to  flee  from  danger,  is  necessary  for 
the  survival  of  almost  all  species  of  animals. 

d.  On  the  basis  of  the  food  impulse,  lower  animals  and 
man  have  powerful  incentives  to  search  actively  for 
nutriment. 

(a)   Becomes  in  man  one  of  the  bases  of  the  highly 
complex  impulse  for  gain. 


38  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(3)  The  sex  instinct  is  most  likely  to  intrude  on  the  survival 
impulses. 

a.  Holds  the  same  relation  to  the  preservation  of  the 
race  as  do  the  survival  impulses  to  the  preservation 
of  the  individual. 

(4)  Parental    impulses    lead    to    permanent    affections,    and 
around  them  the  institution  of  the  family  has  developed. 

a.  A  relatively  pure  form  of  monogamy  is  ascribed  to 
certain  higher  animals,  especially  to  certain  species 
of  birds. 

(5)  Impulses  of  curiosity  are  displayed  by  many  of  the  higher 
animals. 

a.  Native  excitant  of  the  instinct  would  seem  to  be  any 
object  similar  to,  yet  perceptibly  different  from,  fami- 
liar objects  habitually  noticed. 

b.  In  men  of  certain  type,  it  may  become  the  main  source 
of  intellectual  energy  and  effort. 

(6)  Gregarious  impulses — have  played  a  great  part  in  mould- 
ing animal  and  human  group-life. 

a.  Their  fundamental  nature  is  indicated  by  the  extreme 
and   frantic  distress  shown  by  animal   forms   when 
separated  from  their  own  groups  and  by  the  satisfac- 
tion shown  in  being  one  of  a  herd. 
Suggested  Readings: 

McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  II,  III. 
Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Chs.  IV-XIII. 
Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  IX. 
Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Evolution  and  Animal  Life,  Ch.  XX. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Reading  for  Chapter  III. 
Bergen  and  Davis,  Principles  of  Botany,  Ginn:  1906. 
Davenport,  C.  B.,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics,  Holt: 

1911. 
Davison,  A.,  Human  Body  and  Health  (Advanced),  Amer. 

Book:  1910. 

Dealey  &  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 
Doncaster,  L.,  Heredity,  Cambridge  Univ.  Pr:  1911. 
Ellwood,   C.   A.,   Sociology   and   Modern   Social   Problems, 

American  Book :  1910. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  39 

Gregory,  Keller  and  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, Ginn:  1910. 

Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Evolution  and  Animal  Life,  Appleton: 
1908. 

Jordan,  Kellogg  and  Heath,  Animal  Studies,  Appleton :  1906. 

Kellicott,  W.  E.,  The  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution, 
Appleton:  1911. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Macm : 
1908. 

Marshall,  C.  E.,  Microbiology,  Blakiston:  1911. 

McDougall,  W.,  Social  Psychology,  Luce:  1909. 

McFarland,  J.,  Biology,  Saunders :  1910. 

McKim,  W.  D.,  Heredity  and  Human  Progress,  Putnam: 
1901. 

Mill,  H.  R.,  International  Geography,  Appleton:  1909. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  Scribner's :  1891. 

Wallace,  A.  R.,  The  World  of  Life,  Moffatt:  1911. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1898. 

Woodhead,  G.  S.,  Bacteria,  Scribner's:  1897. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  III. 

1.  The  Leading  Contribution  of  Biology  to  Social  Advance. 

2.  The  Service  of  the  Microscope  to  Mankind. 

3.  The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  as  Illustrated  in  Human  Life. 

4.  The  Social  Characteristics  of  Animals. 

5.  A  Study  of  the  Relative  Influence  of  Heredity  and  En- 

vironment in  your  own  case. 

6.  The  Organic  Conception  of  Society. 

7.  A  Study  in  Economic  Zoology  (or  in  Economic  Botany). 

8.  The  Biological  History  of  the  Race. 

9.  Heredity  and  Sociology. 

10.  The  Biological  Side  of  Immigration. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
HYGIENIC  AND  EUGENIC  FACTOKS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


S'ECTION  18.    THE  SELF-PRESERVATION  IMPULSES. 

(1)  Introductory — the  factors  in  social  progress  described  in 
the  preceding  sections  are  external  to  man. 

a.  The  factors  in  social  progress  to  be  described  in  the 
remaining  chapters  of  this  syllabus  are  subjective — 
they  are  based  on  human  impulses,  instincts,  desires, 
interests — are  psychological  in  nature. 

(2)  The  primary  interest  of  every  man,  as  of  every  animal,  is 
in  sheer  keeping  alive  (anthropologically,  not  finally). 

a.  Doubtful  if  it  is  ever  observed  alone  in  normal  human 
beings. 

b.  If  life  be  worth  living,  it  is  logical  to  yield  to  the 
instinct  to  prolong  it  so  long  at  least  as  any  satisfac- 
tion can  be  got  from  it  or  given  by  it. 

c.  In  giving  way  to  this  instinct,  people  strive  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  their  days — either  by  rational 
methods  or  by  resort  to  unintelligent  measures. 

(a)  Methods  of  satisfying  the  physical  functions 
may  extend  from  unrestrained  animalism  to 
the  perfection  of  a  perfect  body  as  an  instru- 
ment of  highest  life. 

(3)  Rational  methods  of  physical  self-control — by  observing 
the  laws  of  hygiene  and  sanitary  science — by  developing 
the  tendency  to  play,  etc. 

a.  The  eugenic  method — guaranteeing  to  all  future  in- 
dividuals the  right  of  being  well-born. 

(a)  Since  the  physically  and  mentally  defective, 
the  stunted  and  the  starved  are  a  drag  upon 
and  arrest  or  defect  to  social  progress. 

(4)  Ratio  between  the  health  desire  and  all  other  human  de- 
sires is  infinitely  variable. 

41 


42  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  One  day  a  man  will  forego  all  for  the  privilege  of 
continuing  to  exist. 

b.  Again  he  may  jauntily  throw  away  his  life   for  a 
principle  or  a  sentiment  or  a  passion. 

(5)   Social  Progress  calls  for  races  of  physically  splendid  men. 
a.  Mental   and   social   life   stand   in  the  most  intimate 
relation  conceivable  to  physical  development  of  in- 
dividuals. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Bigelow,  Applied  Biology,  Pt.  IV. 

Herter,  Biological  Aspects  of  Human  Problems.     Bk.  II. 
Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Ch.  VI. 
McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  VII,  XL 

SECTION  19.    SOCIAL  WASTE  THROUGH  BACTERIAL 
DISEASES. 

(1)  Plagues,  pestilences,  and  epidemics  are  the  most  striking 
examples  of  influences  affecting  public  health. 

a.  As  late  as  1892,  the  wealthy  city  of  Hamburg  was 
terrorized  by  a  severe  epidemic  of  Asiatic  cholera. 

b.  Still  more  recently  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Butler,  Penn.,  Rock- 
ford,  111.,  have  been  ravaged  by  the  plague  of  typhoid 
fever. 

(2)  Explanations  of  plagues. 

a.  Savages  attributed  them  to  evil  spirits,  demons. 

b.  Even  for  civilized  peoples,  plagues  have  been  mys- 
terious in  origin. 

c.  Now  known  to  be  outbreaks  of  infectious  and  con- 
tagious diseases. 

(a)  Due  to  invasions  of  the  body  by  micro-organ- 
isms. 

(b)  Each  such  disease  has  its  own  special  microbe. 

(c)  Not  the    disease    but    the    parasitic    microbe 
which  are  "catching." 

(d)  Epidemics  may  occur  when  public  food  sup- 
plies, water  supplies,  milk  supplies,  steamers, 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  43 

coaches,  and  other  public  places  become  in- 
fected with  disease. 

(3)  Microbes  as  disease  germs — for  these  discoveries,  society 
is  indebted  to  Pasteur  (French  biologist),  Koch  (German 
bacteriologist),  and  others. 

(4)  Some  microbic  diseases  and  their  prevention. 

a.  Tuberculosis — so-named  because  of  certain  charac- 
teristic cheesy  tubercles  found  in  the  lungs  and  other 

tissues. 

(a)  Until  discovery  of  tubercle  bacillus  in  1882  by 
Koch,  the  disease  was  generally  regarded  as 
readily  inherited. 

(b)  Caused    only    through    the    entrance  of  the 
microbe  into  susceptible  bodies — by  personal 

contact,  by  objects  handled  or  mouthed  (food, 
drinking  cups,  towels),  by  dust  containing 
germs  expectorated,  by  the  moist  breath  in 
coughing,  or  even  in  talking. 

(c)  The  disease  moves  to  a  fatal  issue  only  when 
the  vital  resistance  proves  unequal  to  the  de- 
fense. 

b.  Typhoid  fever — caused  by  typhoid  bacillus,   discov- 
ered by  Koch  about   1879 — a  slow  fever  requiring 

months  for  its  convalescence. 

(a)  Bacilli  taken  into  the  human  body  by  drinking 
water  contaminated  by  sewage  containing  the 
microbes,  through  milk  contaminated  by  dirty 
hands  of  careless  and  unclean  milkers,  through 
oysters  growing  in  localities  where  city  sew- 
age is  emptied. 

c.  Diphtheria — disease    of    the    throat — bacillus    diph- 

theriae  finds  lodgment  in  throats  of  susceptible  per- 
sons. 

(a)  Multiply  there  and  secret  meanwhile  a  pois- 
onous substance  or  toxin. 

d.  Malarial  fever — a  world-famous  disease — by  far  the 
most  important  of  all  tropical  diseases. 


44  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)   In  1880  the  malarial  microbe  was  discovered, 
and  in  1899  whence  it  came  and  how  it  was 
transmitted  from  victim  to  victim  was  discov- 
ered— in  a  genus  of  mosquito,  anopheles. 
e.  Yellow  fever,  greatly  dreaded  in  the  tropics,  now  at- 
tributed   to    a    microbe,   conveyed   by   a   mosquito, 
stegomyia  by  name. 

/.  Lockjaw  or  tetanus — due    to    the    tetanus    microbe, 
grows  best  in  absence  of  oxygen,  in  deep  or  lacerated 
wounds — made  by  toy  pistols,  etc. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Marshall,  Microbiology,  Div.  VIL,  Ch.  I. 
Sedgwick,  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science,  Ch.  III. 
McFarland,  Biology,  Ch.  XV. 

Flexner,  "Natural  Resistance  to  Infectious  Diseases  and  its 
Reinforcement,"  Smithsonion  Report,  1909:  723-38. 

SECTION  20.— OVERWORK  AND  FATIGUE. 

(1)  A  vast  difference  in  the  degree  of  wellness — many  well 
men  cannot  run  a  block  for  a  street  car  without  feeling 
completely  tired  out. 

(2)  Origin  of  the  problem  of  fatigue  to  be  found  in  connection 
with  the  Industrial  Evolution. 

a.  With  rise  of  factory  system,  monotonous  speeded-up 
processes  developed. 

(3)  Fatigue — the  most  common  and  subtle  danger  of  occu- 
pation. 

a.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  chemical  process — a  con- 
tinual tearing  down    of    muscle    and  nerve  tissues 
without  building  them  up. 

b.  In  this  way,  fatigue  substances  or  toxins  come  to  cir- 
culate in  the  blood,  poisoning  brain  and  nervous  sys- 
tem, muscles,  glands  and  other  organs. 

(a)  When  blood  is  transferred  from  an  exhausted 
dog  to  a  frisky  one,  the  latter  immediately 
droops  and  shows  all  the  signs  of  fatigue. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  45 

(4)  Objective  causes  of  fatigue. 

a.  Long  hours —  in  the  steel  industry,  the  working  day 
is  usually  twelve  hours,  seven  days  in  the  week. 

b.  Monotonous,    speeded-up   operations — at   many   ma- 
chines a  quick  pressure  of  the  foot  and  accompanying 
hand-movements  are  repeated  "40  times  a  minute, 
24,000  times  a  day." 

(5)  Results  of  fatigue. 

a.  Fatigue  and  industrial  inefficiency — poorer  work  and 
less  work  is  done  in  the  last  hours  of  a  day's  labor 
than  in  the  earlier  hours. 

b.  Fatigue  and  contagious  diseases — an  overworked  lab- 
oring man  or  woman  is  more  susceptible  to  pneu- 
monia, tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever  than  is  a  person 
whose  vital  resistance  is  normal. 

(a)  A  typical  succession  of  events  is  first,  fatigue, 
then  colds,  then  tuberculosis,  then  death. 

c.  Fatigue  and  nervous  diseases — long  hours  of  labor 
and  feverish  haste  leads  to  nervous  breakdown. 

d.  Fatigue  and  future  generations — the  children  of  over- 
worked parents  tend  to  be  physical  weaklings. 

e.  Fatigue  and  morals  of  working  people — long  hours  of 
monotonous  labor  increase  the  susceptibility  of  the 
human  organism  to  harmful  temptations. 

(a)   The   exhausted   worker  tends   to   neglect  all 

family  duties. 

/.  Fatigue  and  industrial  accidents — the  liability  to  acci- 
dent increases  with  the  daily  hours  of  labor. 

(a)  Investigation:  In  the  second  hour  of  work, 
9,000  accidents  occur;  in  the  third  hour,  12,- 
000;  in  fourth  hour,  15,000  accidents  occur. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Goldmark,  Fatigue  and  Efficiency,  Ch.  I. 

Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  X. 

Bogardus,   Fatigue  and   Industrial  Accidents,  Amer.  Jour. 

Sociol.,  17:206-22. 
Favill,  The  Toxin  of  Fatigue,  Survey,  24:767-73. 


46  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

SECTION  21.     THE   DURATION    OF   THE    WORKING 
LIFE. 

(1)  The  desirability  of  a  lengthened  life. 

a.  Society  needs  balanced  men — with  broad  views  and 
mature  judgments. 

b.  The  years  from  forty-five  to  sixty-five  should  be  the 
most  valuable  years  from  the  social  view-point. 

c.  Society  trains  for  a  working  period  of  forty  years, 
but  in  hundreds  of  thousands  of  cases,  life-work  is 
artificially  stopped  almost  before  it  has  begun. 

d.  If  the  length  of  average  life  were  doubled,  the  popu- 
lation would  in  a  generation  double  without  any  in- 
crease in  the  birth-rate. 

e.  Increase  of  longevity  would  also  enable  the  man  at 
the  margin  to  care  more  adequately   for  those  de- 
pendent upon  him. 

/.  It  is  abnormal  that  any  individual  should  be  cut  down 
in  the  prime  of  development. 

(a)  With  the  potentialities  of  existence  unrealized 
and  the  character  growth  of  life  barely  begun. 

(2)  The  length  of  the  working  life. 

a.  Extends  from  about  the  age  of  sixteen  until  the  time 
of  death. 

b.  Out  of  every  thousand  males  living  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  556  will  have  died  before  the  age  of  sixty-five 
as  the  result  of  either  accident  or  disease  (Hoffman). 

(a)  Thus  society  loses  more  than  one-half  of  its 
working  force  before  the  end  of  the  working 
period. 

.c.  Each  decade  marks  an  advance  in  the  age  at  which 
children  may  go  to  work. 

(a)  The  constant  tendency  to  raise  the  age  of  en- 
trance upon  life  activities  shortens  the  working 
period. 

d.  Overstrains  and  "speeding  up"  processes  of  modern 
industries  throw  men  out  of  work  earlier  than  for- 
merly. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  47 

(a)  Thus  the  working  period  is  being  shortened 
at  both  ends. 

e.  People  do  not  at  present  die  natural  deaths. 

(a)  Many  of  the  deaths  even  between  the  ages  of 
seventy  and  seventy-four  are  not  due  to  old 
age,  but  to  accident  and  preventable  diseases 
(Metchnikof). 

f.  Industry  is  doubly  wasteful  of  life  and  efficiency — 
(Campbell). 

(a)  "May  be  charged  not  only  with  the  extrava- 
gance of  killing  and  maiming  yearly  thousands 
of  workers. 

(b)  But  it  seems  to  choose  for  its  victims  many  in 
the  prime  of  manhood,  normally  with  years  of 
life  before  them,  and  with  obligations  but  par- 
tially discharged  to  wives  and  children." 

(3)  A  new  social  attitude. 

a.  While  the  general  philosophy  of  modern  life  bids  us 
turn  away  from  a  scene  of  premature  death,  with  a 
feeling  of  sorrow  for  the  dead, 

b.  The  new  social  attitude  requires  that  every  such  scene 
inspire  us,  first  of  all,  to  prevent  similar  and  succeed- 
ing catastrophes. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  IX. 

Campbell,  Industrial  Accidents    and    Their    Compensation, 

Ch.  II. 

Fisher,  Report  on  National  Vitality. 
Hoffman,  Annals  of  American  Academy,  27 :465-90. 
Metchnikof,  Prolongation  of  Life,  Ch.  I. 

SECTION  22.     HYGIENE  AND  SOCIAL  ADVANCE. 

(1)     General  classification  of  causes  of  disease. 

a.  Constitutional  and  environmental,  inside  and  outside, 

intrinsic  and  extrinsic. 
&.  Premature  death  is  common;  old  age  is  rare — due 

either  to  defects  in  mechanism  or  to  environmental 

disease. 


48  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(2)  As  sanitary  science  (and  public  control  of  health  condi- 
tions) will  lessen  environmental  diseases,  so  hygiene  (and 
eugenics)  may  eliminate  in  a  large  part  constitutional  de- 
fects. 

a.  Hygiene  is  of  special  importance  to  a  man  physically 
weak. 

b.  Horace  Fletcher  in  his  46th  year,  rejected  for  life 
insurance,  later  obtained  it  and  on  his  50th  birthday 
bicycled  190  miles. 

(3)  Hygiene  of  environment — man    is    normally  an  outdoor 
animal. 

a.  Civilization  has  brought  him  indoors  and  increased 
his  susceptibility  to  many  diseases. 

b.  "Where  sun  and  air  enter  seldom,  the  physician  en- 
ters often." 

c.  John  Muir:     "The  minute  I  get  into  a  house,  I  get 
into  a  draft  and  the  first  thing  I  know,  I  am  cough- 
ing and  sneezing  and  threatened  with  pneumonia  and 
am  altogether  miserable." 

(4)  Hygiene  and  nutrition — scientific  study  of  diet  has  only 
recently  begun. 

a.  Three  essential  classes  of  energy-giving  foods:  pro- 
teins or  nitrogenous  foods  (lean  meat),  fats  (butter), 
carbohydrates  such  as  sugar,  starch. 

b.  Foods  needed  to  form  body  material,  phosphate  of 
lime  for  bone  and  nerve-tissue. 

c.  A  man  of  ordinary  labor  needs  daily,  food  which  con- 
tains about  100  grains  of  proteid,  50  grains  of  fats, 
500  grains  of  carbohydrates. 

(a)  Hence  to  put  foods  together  in  proper  propor- 
tion and  form,  a  scientist  and  artist  is  needed, 
and  the  kitchen  becomes  a  scientifically  con- 
ducted laboratory. 

d.  The  hygiene  of  nutrition  warns  against  poisons. 

(a)  Several  English  life-insurance  companies  have 
found  by  statistics  (for  about  forty  years)  that 
abstainers  from  alcoholic  liquors  have  a  death- 
rate  about  23%  lower  than  non-abstainers. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  49 

(5)  Hygiene  of  activity — an  evil  of  the  modern  division  of 
labor  is  that  the  sedentary  worker  does  not  get  necessary 
activity. 

a.  An  animal  lives  a  more  healthy  life  than  the  average 
man. 

(6)  Observation   shows  that  many  of   world's   most   famous 
vital   men   and   women   have   virtually,   through   hygienic 
methods,  made  over  their  constitutions  from  weakness  to 
strength. 

a.  Examples  :     Roosevelt,  and  others. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Stewart  in  Pyle,  Personal  Hygiene,  315-48. 

Sedgwick,  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science,  Ch.  I. 

Taft,  Address  at  the  15th  Intern.  Cong,  on  Hyg.  and  Demog., 

Science,  n.  s.,  36 ;  504-8. 
Wile,  Survey,  29 :  146-52. 

SECTION  23.     THE  PURE  FOOD  MOVEMENT  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

(1)  No  such  problem  existed  when  food  consisted  chiefly  of 
raw  materials. 

a.  When  food  comes  under  artificial  preparation  and  is 
imported  from  foreign  countries  and  from  other  sec- 
tions of  the  same  country,  the  problem  has  arisen. 

b.  England  and  Germany  have  created  ''public  analy- 
cists,"  who  must  approve  the  quality  of  food  before  it 
can  be  sold. 

(2)  Agitation  by  consumers  in  the  United  States — began  about 
1882. 

a.  In  one  year  in  Pennsylvania  it  was  found  that  over 
87,000,000   pounds   of   oleomargerine   were   sold   as 
butter. 

b.  Investigations    of    infant    mortality    in    New    York 
showed  that    milk    was    poisoned  by  preservatives, 
weakened  by  being  watered,  and  was  often  an  ideal 
breeding  place  for  bacteria  as  a  result  of  unsanitary 
handling. 


50  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Deaths  in  the  Spanish  American  War  were  traced  to 
"tainted  meat." 

(3)  State  legislation  preceded  national  legislation — as  in  many 
other  cases. 

a.  Massachusetts  was  the  first  state  to  adopt  a  pure  food 
law. 

(a)   The    rate    of    adulteration    decreased   in   ten 
years,  from  57%  in  1883  to  31.2%  in  1894. 

b.  By  1896,  thirty-two  of  the  states  had  adopted  pure 
food  laws. 

(a)  Their  lasting  influence  was  nullified  because 
goods  that  did  not  conform  to  the  standard  of 
purity  of  one  state  were  shipped  into  another. 

(b)  Foreign  goods,  pure  or  impure,  were  shipped 
in. 

(c)  Hence  the  need  of  a  Federal  Law. 

(4)  The  fight  for  national  legislation. 

a.  The   Bureau   of   Chemistry  began   investigations   as 

early  as  1885. 

b.  The  Oleomargerine  Act  (passed,  1887)  placed  a  tax 
of  ten  cents  a  pound  upon  all  oleomargerine  sold  as 
butter. 

c.  The  Investigation  Act  (passed,  1890)  prohibited  the 
importation  of  adulterated  meats. 

d.  The  Interstate  Pure  Food  Commission   (organized, 
1897)  drew  up  a  model  pure  food  bill. 

e.  Senate  (1899)  appointed  a  committee  (Dr.  Wiley  as 
head)    to  investigate  the  sanitary  conditions  in  the 
Chicago  packing  houses. 

/.  When  the  first  general  pure  food  bill  was  introduced 
in  the  Senate  (1899),  it  was  regarded  as  "a  huge 
joke." 

(a)  The  success  of  the  manufacturing  interests  in 
fighting  the  bill,  a  national  disgrace. 

(b)  Not  passed  until  February,  1906;  Dr.  Wiley 
was  opposed  by  the  "interests"  in  enforcing 
the  law. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  51 

(c)  The  law  fails  in  that  (1)  it  makes  unfortunate 
compromises  with  the  "interests";  (2)  the  use 
of  "distributive"  names  permits  frauds,  etc. 
(d)  The  law  succeeds  in  that  (1)  labels  have 
become  more  honest,  (2)  the  use  of  harmful 
preservatives  has  been  restricted,  (3)  over 
three  thousand  cases  of  adulteration  have  been 
prosecuted,  etc. 

(5)  Present  need  is  for  more  accurate  and  speedy  enforce- 
ment of  the  present  law,  and  for  the  further  co-operation 
of  public  opinion  in  getting  a  socially  adequate  law. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Wiley,  "Progress  and  Regress  under  the  Food  Law,"  Good 
'Housekeeping,  October,  1912. 

Dunn,  "Dr.  Wiley  and  Pure  Food,"  World's  Work,  Oct., 
Nov.,  1911. 

The  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  1906. 

Mason,  "The  Vital  Question  of  Pure  Food,"  Rev.  of  Re- 
views, Janv  1900. 

SECTION  24.     SANITATION  AND  SOCIAL  ADVANCE. 

(1)  History  of  public  sanitation — no  system  of  sanitation  until 
middle  of  last  century. 

a.  First  sewage  system  established  in  England  in  1847. 

(2)  Sanitation  and  water  supply. 

a.  Chicago  emptied  sewage  into  Lake  Michigan  until 
Drainage  Canal  was  opened. 

(a)   But  lakes,  especially  small  lakes,  do  not  make 
cesspools  and  good  wells  at  the  same  time. 

b.  Once  common  method  was  for  one  city  to  pour  its 
sewage  into  a  river  and  another  city  down-stream  a 
few  miles  would  take  out  water  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. 

(a)  Results:  epidemic    of    cholera    in    Hamburg, 
1887,  and  of  typhoid  in  Ithaca,  1903. 

c.  But  pathogenic  bacteria  tend  to  die  out  in  river  and 
lake  water. 


52  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  Temperature  too  low — lower  than  in  human 
body. 

(b)  Food  supply  for  bacteria  too  scanty. 

(c)  Hostile  bacteria  and  harmful  mineral  salts. 
d.  Filtration  methods  of   control  are  under  rapid  de- 
velopment. 

(3)  Sanitation  and  milk  supply — milk  is  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  disease  germs. 

a.  Bacteria  die  out  in  water,  but  thrive  in  milk. 

b.  A  glass  of  ordinary  unclean  milk  contains  millions  of 
bacteria,  harmless  perhaps  to  adults,  but  may  cause 
death  to  young  children. 

c.  Certified  milk — unheated  milk  which  has  been  tested 
and  found  to  contain  only  a  few  bacteria. 

d.  Pasteurized  milk — heated  to  temperature   of   about 
165°   F.  for  twenty  minutes — most  pathogenic  bac- 
teria are  killed. 

e.  Sterilized  milk — boiled  until  all  germs  are  dead — but 
so  much  boiling  hurts  the  quality  of  fresh  milk. 

(4)  Sanitation  and  other  food  problems — adulteration  of  foods. 

a.  Milk  most  subject  to  adulteration — by  removing  best 
part. 

(a)  Reported  that  in  St.  Lous  in  one  year  1600 
gallons  of  cream  were  removed  daily  by 
milkmen. 

b.  Allspice  has  been  found  to  contain  as  much  as  85% 
of  wheat,  and  of  nut  shells. 

c.  Labels  are  often  wholly  deceptive — "aqua"  used  in- 
stead of  "water." 

d.  French   sardines — may  be  caught  off  the  coast  of 
Maine. 

e.  Canned  salmon — with  apologies  to  the  swordfish. 

/.  Coffee — berries — make  in  a  mold  and  not  grown  on 
a  bush. 

(a)  Reported  in  1905  six  firms  regularly  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  coffee-bean  making  ma- 
chinery. 

g.  Beneath  the  beautiful  exterior  of  the  soda  fountain 
may  be  enthroned  a  host  of  frauds. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  53 

(5)   Sanitary  science  is  just  beginning  to  organize  its  forces. 
a.  Calls  on  the  civil  engineer,  the  chemist,  bacteriologist, 
physician,  statistician — all  united  in  a  Public  Health 
Association. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Godfrey,  The  Health  of  the  City,  Chs.  I-V. 

Smith,  Social  Pathology,  282-90. 

S'edgwick,  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science,  Ch.  IV. 

North,   "Sanitation   in   Rural    Communities."     U.    S.,   Bur. 

Educ.  Bui.  24:  19-25. 
Davison,  The  Human  Body  and  Health,  Ch.  V. 

SECTION  25.    THE  PROGRESS  OF  MEDICAL  SCIENCE. 

(1)  Earliest  trace  of  medicine  leads  back  to  the  "medicine 
man." 

a.  In  Egypt,  records  of  medical  practitioners,  4000-3000 
B.  C. 

b.  Moses  gave  the  Hebrews  one  of  the  first  known  codes 
of  public  hygiene. 

c.  Among  the  Greeks,  Aesculapius  (about  1250  B.  C.)/ 
and  Hippocrates  (460  B.  C.)  are  the  most  renowned; 
the  latter  explained  disease  on  the  basis  of  the  "Four 
Humors." 

d.  Prejudice  caused  Constantine    to    enforce  a  decree 
closing  all  medical  institutions. 

e.  To  Arabians  is  credited  (from  7th  to  13th  centuries, 
the  Dark  Ages)  the  preservation  of  a  distinctly  med- 
ical science  based  on  a  clinical  study  of  diseases. 

(a)  The  belief  that  plagues  and  epidemics  are  due 
directly  to  the  wrath  of  the  gods  or  to  Divine 
decree  still  held  sway. 

(2)  The  period  from  1400  to  1700  A.  D.  marks  the  beginning 
of  attempts  to  study  human  anatomy — such  a  school  was 
founded  at  Bologna. 

a.  In  Florence,  post-mortem  examinations  were  begun, 
to  find  the  causes  of  death-producing  diseases. 


54  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  William  Harvey  (1578-1657),  the  first  great  English 
physician — his  life-work  centered  around  a  study  of 
the  heart  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

c.  The  religious  wars  prevailing  in  Europe  afforded  a 
wide  field  for  the  development  of  practical  surgery. 

(3)  In  the  18th  century,  Edward  Jenner  gave  to  the  world 
one  of  the  greatest  life-saving  discoveries  in  preventative 
medicine,  namely,  vaccination. 

a.  Discovered  the  cowpox  virus. 

(4)  In  the  19th  century,  one  of  the  most  important  of  modern 
discoveries  was  that  of  anaesthesia,  by  use  of  oxide  gas, 
ether,  chloroform. 

a.  Marked  by  the  rapid  development  of  medical  schools 
and  medical  journals. 

b.  Surgery  has  had  two  periods,  pre-Lister  and  post- 
Lister. 

(a)  Lister  early  suspected  the  parasitic  nature  of 
gangrene  cases. 

(b)  Proved  that  bacteria  are  a  cause  of  gangrene, 
and  that  their  presence  is  unnecessary. 

(c)  As  anaesthesia  prevented  suffering  during  an 
operation,  Lister  saved  humanity  from  much 
suffering  which  followed  the  operation. 

c.  Pasteur,   a   French   chemist    (1822-1895),   developed 
the  Pasteur  treatment  of  hydrophobia. 

d.  Koch,  perhaps  the  greatest  of  this  trio  of  pioneers  in 
preventative   medicine — a   German  physician    (1843- 
1910). 

(a)  Noted  as  the  discoverer  of  the  bacilli  of  tuber- 
culosis (1882)  and  of  cholera  (1883),  of  the 
anti-toxins  of  diphtheria  and  tetanus,  of  the 
medium  by  which  "sleeping-sickness"  is  trans- 
mitted. 

e.  Alexis  Carrel,  one  of  the  greatest  living  explorers  in 
the  field  of  medicine  today  (1913),  at  Rockefeller  In- 
stitute. 

(a)  Has  taken  a  chicken's  heart,  kept  it  beating 
for  months  outside  of  the  body,  then  placed  it 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  55 

in  cold  storage,  and  when  removed,  it  went  on 
beating. 

(b)  His  hope:  to  be  able  to  remove  all  healthy  or- 
gans of  the  dead  and  supplant  by  them,  the  dis- 
eased organs  of  the  sick. 

(c)  Through  his  work  we  stand  on  the  threshold 
of  a  new  era  that  is  going  to  stop  all  pre- 
ventable deaths,  and  that  will  step  aside  only 
for  old  age. 

(5)  In  the  words  of  Hippocrates  the  Great,  3000  years  ago, 
the  science  of  medicine  may  be  summed  up :  "A  social  art 
with  a  social  mission." 

Suggested  Readings : 

Billings,  "Progress  of  Medicine,"  19th  Century,  338-48,  1901. 
Mayo,  "Our  New  Attitude  Toward  Disease,"  Outlook,  July 

20,  1912. 
Mayo,   "Big  Battles   Against  Disease,"   Outlook,   Dec.   24, 

1910. 
Encyclopedia  Medica,  Vol.  VII,  377-400. 

SECTION  26.  PLAY  AS  A  CONSTRUCTIVE  FACTOR 
IN  SOCIETY. 

(1)  Attitudes  toward  play. 

a.  Alcuin — father  of  mediaeval  education — looked  upon 

play  as  worthy  of  being  suppressed. 

b.  Until  recent  times,  considered  a  relatively  harmless 
way  of  occupying  children  who  are  too  young  to  be 
doing  anything  useful. 

c.  Play  turns  out    to    be    a    first-class  educational  and 
socializing  process. 

(a)   The  play  impulse  is  nature's  way  of  develop- 
ing body,  mind,  and  character. 

(2)  Theories  of  play. 

a.  Schiller—Spencer — play  is  expression  of  surplus  en- 
ergy. 

b.  Recapitulation  theory — child,  playing,  is  living  over 
rapidly  the  past  stages  of  the  race. 


56  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Groos — play  is  preparation  for  life. 

(a)  The  plays  of  a  kitten  prepare  not  for  grazing 
but  for  catching  mice. 

(b)  The  plays  of  a  girl  look  forward  to  mother- 
hood. 

(3)  Play  has  been  commercialized. 

a.  The  cheap  seaside  resorts  vie  with  one  another  to 
furnish  their  patrons  with  new  sensations. 

b.  "All  sorts  of  death-inviting  devices  shoot  people  like 
catapults  down  grades,  up  grades  and  through  the 
air." 

c.  For  ages  the  suggestibility  of  the  spectator-crowd  has 
been  exploited  for  vicious  commercial  or  other  selfish 
ends. 

d.  Society  cannot  tolerate  a  situation  which  leads  to  the 
economic    and    moral    exploitation  of  children  and 
which   causes    deterioration   of   all    its    members    in 
general. 

e.  Must    be    legal    regulation,    enforcing    a    minimum 
standard,  and  constructive  action  for  recreation  of  a 

social  sort. 

(4)  In  recognition  of  this  play-need,  intelligent  philanthropic 
agencies  and  municipalities  have  established  many  recrea- 
tions distinctively  social. 

(5)  The  social  value  of  play. 

a.  Develops  quickness  and  accuracy  of  perception. 

b.  Co-ordination  of  the  muscles — which  puts  the  body  at 
the  prompt  service  of  the  mind. 

c.  Rapidity  of  thought  and  promptness  of  decision. 

d.  Respect  for  others,  habit  of  co-operation,  self-sacrifice 
for  the  good  of  a  group — in  team-play. 

(ct)   In  no  other  place  can  a  child  so  realize  for 
himself  the  value  of  law  as  on  the  playground. 

e.  Can  not  be  wholesome  living  without  socialized  play. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Patten,  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  VI. 

Lee,  "Play  as  Medicine,"  Conf.  Char,  and  Corr.  1911 :  354-64. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  57 

Weir,  "Playground    Movement    in    America,"  Nat'l  Educ. 

Assn.,  1911:  925-33. 
Braugher,  "Play  and  Social  Problems,"  Annals,  Mar.  1910, 

109-17. 
Gulick,  "Population  and  Recreation  and  Public  Morality," 

Annals,  July,  1909,  33-42. 

SECTION  27.    THE  EUGENIC  METHOD  OF  SECURING 
A  HEALTHIER  RACE. 

(1)  Eugenics:    a  study  of  the  agencies  under  social  control 
that  may  improve  or  impair  the  racial  qualities  of  future 
generations,  either  physically  or  mentally. 

a.  To  cause  the  useful  classes  in  the  community  to  con- 
tribute more  than  their  present  proportion  to  the  next 
generation. 

b.  To  cause  the  useless,  vicious  classes  to  contribute  less 
than  their  present  proportion. 

c.  Purposive   direction  of  the   forces   of  heredity  and 
variation. 

(2)  At  present  a  distinct  and  positive  relation  between  civic 
undesirability  and  high  fertility. 

a.  One-fourth  of  the  married  population  of  the  present 
generation  produce  one-half  of  the  next  generation. 

b.  Twelve  per  cent  of  all  the  individuals  born  in  the 
last  generation  produced  one-half  of  the  present  gen- 
eration. 

c.  This  small  per  cent  of  the  population  producing  the 
large  per  cent  of  next  generation  is  from  the  lower 
classes. 

(a)  Everywhere  in  North  Atlantic  and  North  Cen- 
tral states,  native  white  stock  is  failing  to  hold 
its  own  alongside  of  the  lower  grades  of  for- 
eign stock. 

d.  In  1901,  nearly  19,000  imbeciles  and  feeble-minded 
in  the  United  States  married  and  were  free  to  multi- 
ply their  kind. 


58  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  Nearly  47,000  lunatics  in  the  same  year  in  the 
United  States  were  married  and  legally  multi- 
plying their  kind. 

(b)  The  Jukes  family  of  degenerates  in  New  York 
developed  over  1200  members  (Dugdale)  and 
cost  the  state  $1,500,000. 

(3)  Biological  factors  used  by  Eugenics. 

a.  The  raw  materials    for    race  improvement  are  fur- 
nished by  variation. 

b.  The  means  of  accomplishing  results  are  furnished  by 
heredity. 

(a)  Offspring  resemble  parents  not  only  in  gen- 
eralities, but  even  according  to  certain  definite 
formulas. 

(b)  Many  characteristics  are  units  which  can  be 
added  to  races  or  subtracted  from  them  almost 
at  will. 

(c)  New  races  can  be  built  up  to  meet  almost  any 
demand. 

(d)  We  have    both    the    raw    materials  and  the 
means  for  race-improvement. 

(e)  And  the  ability  to  direct  the  evolution  of  the 
human  race  and  to  save  much  of  the  hit  and 
miss  and  the  useless  suffering  of  natural  se- 
lection. 

(4)  Methods  of  eugenics. 

a.  Careful  study  of  the  laws  of  heredity  and  variation. 

b.  Segregation  by  sexes  of  confirmed  criminals,  idiots, 
imbeciles — no  chance  to  reproduce  their  kind. 

c.  Suggested  medical  examination  prior  to  marriage  as 
to  fitness  for  that  state. 

d.  Oppose  vigorously    and    unmistakably    those    social 
practices  leading  to  the  limitation  of  the  birth-rate  of 
the    desirable,    healthy,    and    valuable    elements    of 
society. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Kellicott,  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution,  Chs.  I,  III. 
Davenport,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics,  Chs.  VI- VIII. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  59 

Saleeby,  Parenthood  and  Race  Culture,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Smith;  Social  Pathology,  290-331. 

Ellis,  Social  Hygiene,  Ch.  VI. 

Galton,  Inquiries  into  the  Human  Faculty,  194-220. 


SECTION  28.    THE  CONSERVATION  OF  HUMAN  RE- 
SOURCES. 

( 1 )  Means  intelligent,  orderly  and  efficient  use  of  all  the  facul- 
ties of  men  as  applied  to  world  problems. 

(2)  Is  essentially  the  problem  of  increasing  the  average  length 
of  life. 

a.  In  India  average  length  of  life  is  twenty-five  years; 
in  Sweden  it  is  about  fifty-two  years;  in  New  Eng- 
land states  it  is  about  forty-five  years. 

b.  Hence  length  of  life  is  dependent  on  definite  condi- 
tions which  may  be  modified. 

c.  Length  of  life  depends  on  (a)   absence  of  constitu- 
tional defects,  (b)  vital  resistance  to  disease,  (c)  en- 
vironmental conditions — all  are  subject  to  larger  con- 
trol than  at  present — by  eugenic,  hygienic  and  sani- 
tary measures. 

d.  The  mortality  rate  furnishes  a  fairly  good  index  of 
vitality. 

(a)  Between  1890  and  1906  New  York  lowered 
her  death-rate  per  1000  from  25.4  to  18.6;  and 
Boston  from  23.4  to  18.9;  and  in  the  whole 
registration  area  of  the  United   States   from 
19.6  to  16.1. 

(b)  In  Havana,  the  death-rate  after  the  American 
occupation  fell  from  over  50  to  about  20. 

(c)  The  tuberculosis  death-rate  is  now  in  England 
only  one-third  of  what  it  was  seventy  years 
ago. 

(d)  Death-rate  decreased  from  40  to  50  per  1000 
in  1700  to  15  per  1000  in  1900  in  London. 

e.  Life  is  shortened  by  permature  death  and  narrowed 
by  invalidity. 


60  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  About  3,000,000  persons  in  the  United  States 
continually  seriously  ill — equivalent  to  about 
13  days  per  capita  per  year. 

(b)  American  railways   1907-8  killed   11,800  per- 
sons and  injured  111,000  other  persons — total 
killed  by  accident  in  the  United  States  35,000 
and  500,000  more,  seriously  injured. 

(c)  Present  economic  loss  due  to  preventable  ill- 
ness of  750,000  workers  losing  each  $700  per 
annum— $500,000,000.00. 

(d)  Present  economic  loss  due  to  630,000  prevent- 
able deaths  per  annum  at  $1,700  per  life — 
$1,000,000,000.00. 

(e)  Impossible    to    estimate    the    suffering    and 
human  misery  due  to  preventable  cases  of  ill- 
ness and  deaths. 

/.  In  conserving  national  vitality  and  human  life,  de- 
pendence must  be  placed  more  largely  upon  educa- 
tion and  legislation. 

(a)  Government  must  compel  sanitary  conditions 
of  living  and  work,  guard  the  food  supply. 

(b)  Above  all,  the  individual  must  be  trained  in 
right  habits  of  living  and  of  rearing  a  strong 
and  capable  race. 

Suggested  Readings: 

^National  Vitality,  Sen.  Doc.  No.  419,  61st  Cong.  2d  Sess. 
Van  Rise,  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources,  364-93. 
Allen,  Civics  and  Health,  Pts.  I,  V. 
Dix,  "Conservation  of  Mankind,"  Survey,  27;  1880-90. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  IV.: 
Allen,  W.  H.,  Civics  and  Health,  Ginn;  1909. 
Bigelow,  M.  A.  and  A.  W.,  Applied  Biology,  Macm;  1911. 
Davenport,  C.  B.,  Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics,  Holt; 

1911. 
Davison,  A.,  Human  Body  and  Health   (Advanced)   Amer. 

Book;  1910. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  61 

Ellis,  Havelock,  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene,   Houghton, 

Mifflin;  1912. 
Galton,  Francis,  Inquiries  into  the  Human  Faculty,  Button; 

1911. 
Godfrey,  H.,  The  Health  of  the  City,  Houghton,  Mifflin; 

1910. 
Goldmark,   Josephine,   Fatigue  and   Efficiency,   Char.   Pub. 

Comm. ;  1912. 
Herter,    C.    A.,    Biological   Aspects    of    Human    Problems, 

Macm.;  1911. 
Kellicott,  W.  E..  Social  Direction  of  Human  Evolution,  Ap- 

pleton;  1911. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Macm. ; 

1908. 

Marshall,  C.  E.,  Microbiology,  Blakiston;  1911. 
McDougall,  W.,  Social  Psychology,  Luce ;  1909. 
McFarland,  J.,  Biology,  Saunders;  1910. 
Nearing,  S.,  Social  Adjustment,  Macm.;  1911. 
Patten,  S.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Macm. ;  1907. 
Pyle,  W.  L.,  Personal  Hygiene,  Saunders ;  1912. 
Saleeby,    C.    W.,    Parenthood    and    Race    Culture,    Moffat, 

Yard;   1911. 
Sedgwick,  W.  T.,  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science,  Macm.; 

1911. 

Smith,  S.  G.,  Social  Pathology,  Macm.;  1911. 
Van    Hise,    C.    R.,    Conservation    of    National    Resources, 

Macm.;  1910. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  IV . 

1.  An  Argument  in  Favor  of  (or  opposed  to)  a  National 
Department  of  Health. 

2.  The  Fight  Against  Tuberculosis. 

3.  History  of  Eugenics. 

4.  The  Pure  Food  Movement  in  the  United  States. 

5.  The  Life  and  Work  of  Dr.  Harvey  W.  Wiley. 

6.  History   of   the   Playground   Movement   in   the   United 
States. 

7.  History  of  the  Playgrounds  in  your  City. 


62  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

8.  Medical    Examination   in   the    Public    School. 

9.  How  is  Conservation  of  Human  Resources  Most  Needed 
in  Your  City? 

10.  The  Local  Option  Movement  in  the  United  States. 

11.  Overwork  in  the  United  States. 

12.  Koch  and  His  Value  to  Society. 

13.  History  of  Medical  Science. 

14.  The  United  States  Public  Health  Service. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  GENETIC  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  29.    THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

(1)  The  sex  instinct  is  the  only  human  instinct  that  can  be 
compared  with  the  impulses  of  self-preservation  in  respect 
to  its  influence  on  the  conduct  of  man. 

a.  Self-preservation  impulses  look  out  for  the  welfare 
of  the   individual;   sex-instinct  has  to  preserve  the 
race. 

b.  The  institution  known  as  the  family,  rests  upon  the 
great  biological  fact  of  sex. 

(2)  Psychical  differences  between  the  sexes. 

a.  The  male  tends  to  expend  energy,  is  more  active, 
hence  stronger;  the  female  tends  more  to  store  up 
energy,  is  more  passive  and  conservative. 

b.  Woman  is  more  generally  guided  by  her  instincts  and 
emotions  than  man,  and  by  a  stronger  development 
of  the  sympathetic  impulses. 

c.  In  a  certain  sense,  the  nature  of  woman  is  more  fully 
socialized  than  man's  nature. 

(a)  The  average  civilized  woman  represents  a  su- 
perior social  type — which  the  average  civilized 
man  is  only  slowly  approaching. 

(b)  But  even  woman's  socialized  nature  is  limited 
largely  to  the  family  and  the  kindred  group. 

d.  But   why   has   man   advanced   further  than   woman 
intellectually  ? 

(a)  In    beginnings    of    society,    woman    quietly 
turned  her  attention  to  such  industries  as  were 
compatible   with   the   settled   habits   centering 
about  the  care  of  children. 

(b)  Man  developed  further  mentally  as  a  result 

63 


64  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

of  the  struggles  of  hunting  and  of  fighting. 
e.  Primitive   man  by  heroic  ventures   in   hunting  and 
fighting  gained  applause  of  woman;  and  woman  to 
gain  the  applause  of  man  resorted  to  personal  orna- 
mentation. 

(3)  But  sex  alone,  could  never  have  produced  the  family  in 
the  sense  of  a  relatively  permanent  group  of  parents  and 
offspring. 

a.  To  the  sex  instinct  must  be  added  the  parental  instinct 
if  one  would  understand  fully  the  origin  of  the  family. 

b.  The  child  that  has  the  best  training  in  the  family, 
other  things  being  equal,  will  develop  most. 

(a)   Children  without  family  training  tend  to  be- 
come degenerate. 

(4)  Hence  the  family  has  been  created  by  the  very  conditions 
of  life,  by  nature. 

a.  Thus  it  is  a  God-made  and  not  a  man-made  institu- 
tion. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ellwood.  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  IV. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  110-23. 

Dealey,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects,  Ch.  II. 
Ribot.  Psychology  of  Emotions,  Ch.  VI. 

SECTION  30.    THE  FORMS  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

(1)  Family  as  an  institution  has  greatly  varied  in  its  forms 
from  age  to  age  and  from  people  to  people. 

a.  Such  variations  in  form  are  due  partly  to  the  influ- 
ences of  environment,  of  the  state  of  knowledge,  and 
to  causes  not  yet  described. 

b.  Two  leading  forms:   metronymic  and  patronymic. 

(2)  The  metronymic — a  condition  of  human  society  in  which 
relationship  was  traced  through  mothers  only. 

a.  In  which  property  or  authority  descended  along  the 
female  lines  rather  than  along  the  male  lines. 

b.  Arose  at  a  time  when  physiological  connection  be- 
tween father  and  child  was  not  known. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  65 

c.  A  more  efficient  cause  of  the  maternal  system  was 
that  the  mother   in  primitive  times  was  the   stable 
element  in  the  family  life,  the  constant  center  of  the 
home. 

d.  The  Iroquis  Indians  were  essentially  a  metronymic 
people. 

e.  The   metronymic   was   the   primitive   system   and   in 
comparatively  recent  times  a  change  was  made  to  the 
patronymic. 

(3)  Causes  of  the  breakdown  of  the  metronymic  system  and 
of  the  change  to  the  patronymic. 

a.  War — through  the  fact  that  women  captured  in  war 
were  held  as  slaves  and  regarded  as  the  property  of 
the  captor. 

b.  Wife-purchase  operated  in  same  way. 

c.  In  pastoral  stage  of  industry — man  had  charge  of  the 
flocks  and  came  to  be  supreme  in  all  matters. 

d.  Ancestor-worship  tended  to  emphasize  the  power  of 
the  patriarch. 

(4)  The  patronymic   or  patriarchal   system   seen  among  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  early  Romans,  and  down  to  present  day 
— described  historically   in  section  28. 

(5)  Present     changes — to     patronymic-metronymic     type     in 
which  authority  of  man  and  woman  is  about  equal  in  the 
family. 

(6)  The  forms  of  marriage — polyandry,  polygyny,  monogamy. 

a.  Polyandry — union  of  one  woman  with  several  men. 

(a)  Relatively  rare — found  only  in  certain  isolated 
sections  of  the  globe — in  Thibet,  India,  Arabia. 

(b)  Causes — female  infanticide,  scarcity  of  wom- 
en, hard  economic  conditions  where  labor  of 
one  man  not  sufficient  to  support  a  family. 

b.  Polygyny — union  of  one  man  with  several  women — 
found  sporadically  among  all  peoples. 

(a)  Must  be  some  degree  of  wealth  and  sufficient 
food   supply   to   enable   one   man   to   support 
several  wives. 

(b)  Rests  essentially  on  the  degradation  of  woman. 
5 


66  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Monogamy — the  prevalent  form  of  marriage  in  all 
ages  and  countries. 

(a)  Secures  the  superior  care  of  children. 

(b)  Above  produces  affections  of  the  highest  types. 
(c)The  monogamic  family  is  the  basis  of  highest 

types  of  permanent  social  progress. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,   Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  V. 
Dealey,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects,  Ch.  III. 
Howard,  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  Ch.  I. 
Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Bk.  Ill,  Ch.  III. 

SECTION  31.    THE  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
THE  FAMILY. 

(1)  Among    primitive    groups,    the    family    was    essentially 
metronymic. 

(2)  Among  the  Hebrew  tribes,  the  patronymic  stage  had  been 
reached. 

a.  Wife  held  relatively  high  position;  divorce  not  com- 
mon ;  relations  with  children  excellent. 

b.  No  general  pathological  vices. 

(3)  Among  Greeks  and  early  Romans,  ancestor-worship  was 
at  the  basis  of  the  family. 

a.  Authority   was   vested   in   the   father,    had   absolute 
power  over  the  members  of  his  group,  even  to  the 
extent  of  life  and  death. 

b.  Polygyny  was  unknown  in  early  Rome ;  where  no 
male  children,  family  succession  was  secured  through 
adoption. 

c.  Early  Roman  family  the  most  stable  type  the  world 
has  known. 

(4)  Decadence  of  early  Roman  family. 

a.  Powers  of  house-father  were  gradually  limited. 

b.  Right  to  make  a  will  was  conceded,  which  tended  to 
divide  the  family  property  that  before  had  remained 
as  a  unit. 

c.  Woman  was  given  right  to  hold  property  and  in  2d 
century  B.  C.  to  divorce  husband. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  67 

d.  Due  also  to  military  development  of  Rome  as  a  lead- 
ing power. 

(5)  Later  Roman  family  life. 

a.  By  beginning  of  Christian  era,  relations  between  the 
sexes  became  very  loose. 

b.  Marriage  changed  from  a  religious  bond  to  a  private 
contract. 

c.  Seneca :     "Some  women  reckon  their  years  by  the 
number  of  their  husbands." 

(6)  Influence  of  early  Christianity  upon  the  family. 

a.  From  the  first,  the  church  worked  to  abolish  divorce. 

b.  Marriage  came  again  to  be  regarded  as  a  religious 
bond. 

c.  Exalted  place  of  woman  in  the  family,  though  leav- 
ing her  subject  to  her  husband. 

d.  Reaction  against  pagan  sensualism,  led  to  celibacy  of 
the  clergy. 

(7)  Influence  of  Renaissance. 

a.  Separated  church  from  state  and  again  opened  the 
way  for  divorce. 

b.  In  protestant  countries,  celibacy  abolished. 

c.  Great  reformers  did  not  reach  a  uniform  idea  con- 
cerning marriage — Milton  defended  divorce,  Luther 
permitted  bigamy. 

(8)  Present  tendencies — breaking  down  not  only  of  paternal 
but  also  of  maternal  authority. 

a.  Toward    equality    of    sexes, — intellectual,    economic, 
political. 

b.  Marked   instability   of    family   life   and   increase   of 
divorce. 

c.  The   present   is   essentially,   however,   a   transitional 
period,  to  a  higher  form  of  monogamic  family  life. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  VI. 
Dealey,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects,  Ch.  IV- VI. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  V. 
Howard,   History  of  Matrimonial   Institutions,   Pt.   II. 
Westermarck,  History  of  Human  Marriage,  Ch.  I 


68  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

SECTION    32.     PHYSICAL    CONSERVATION    OF    THE 
FAMILY:  THE  HOUSING  PROBLEM. 
(1)   The  housing  problem  begins  when  several   families  are 
found  living  in  a  dwelling  intended  originally  for  a  single 
family. 

a.  Every  city  in  the  United  States  has  its  housing  prob- 
lem: how  shall  it  house  its  people  from  a  sanitary 
and  social  standpoint? 

b.  Only  New  York  has  a  tenement  house  problem,  but 
other  cities  are  tending  toward  New  York  conditions. 

(a)  Housing  conditions  in  New  York  City  with- 
out parallel  in  civilized  world. 

(b)  Over  two-thirds  of  New  York  City's  popula- 
tion live  in  multiple  buildings ;  100,000  separate 
tenement  houses;  10,000  tenements  of  dumb- 
bell  type;    100,000   dark,   unventilated   living 
rooms  without  even  a  window. 

(c)  80,000  buildings,  housing  3,000,000   people,  so 
constructed  as  to  be  a  standing  menace  to  the 
community. 

c.  Housing  evils  include  (a)  overcrowding,  (b)  defect- 
ive plumbing,  (c)  taking  in  of  lodgers,  (d)  sweating 
system,  (e)  no  ventilation,  (f)  excessive  rents,   (g) 
lack  of  play  space. 

d.  Causes  of  housing  problem. 

(a)  Dangerous   ignorance  on  part  of  citizens   of 
what  is  developing  within  the  city  gates,  and 
deplorable  delay,   after  recognition  of  condi- 
tions, rectifying  them. 

(b)  Greed  on  the  part  of  those  persons  who  for 
the  sake  of  larger  profits  are  willing  to  sacri- 
fice health  and  welfare  of  countless  thousands. 

(2)   Some  fallacies  in  regard  to  the  housing  problem. 

a.  That  the  poor  do  not  want  good  housing  conditions. 

b.  That  the  people  need  simply  to  be  reformed  and  not 
the  industrial  and  social  conditions  under  which  they 
live. 

c.  That  the  poor  like  to  be  dirty. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  69 

d.  That  good  tenement  houses  do  not  pay. 

e.  That  bad  housing  means  some  old  building  in  dilapi- 
dated condition. 

(3)  Function  of  a  housing  committee:  to  ascertain  the  facts, 
and  to  educate  the  community  with  regard  to  the  facts  and 
the  ameliorative  and  preventive  means  at  hand. 

(4)  Enforcement  of  housing  laws :  adequate  inspection  is  key- 
note of  successful  administration. 

a.  Expert  photography  is  often  better  than  an  attorney 
or  columns  of  descriptive  matter  in  securing  improve- 
ments. 

(5)  Conclusions: 

a.  A  model  housing  law  should  be  secured  before  build- 
ing model  tenements. 

b.  Municipal  regulation  is  better  than  municipal  owner- 
ship in  the  United  States. 

c.  Legislate  for  the  future  as  well  as  for  the  present. 

d.  Keep  every  city,  a  city  of  homes  as  far  as  possible; 
do  not  let  it  become  a  city  of  tenements. 

Suggested  Readings : 
Veiller,  Housing  Reform,  Ch.  I. 
Godfrey,  The  Health  of  the  City,  Ch.  X. 
Dealey,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects,  Ch.  VIII. 
Bergen,  in  Pyle,  Personal  Hygiene,  365-420. 
Riis,  Peril  and  Preservation  of  the  Home,  Ch.  I  ff. 
Riis,  Battle  with  the  Slum,  Ch.  I  ff. 

SECTION  33.    THE  DEPENDENCE  OF  WOMEN. 

(1)  The  dependence  of  women  is  traditional,  and  grows  out 
of  the  physical  test  of  supremacy. 

(2)  The  essence  of  her  present  position  is  either  entire  sacri- 
fice of  herself  to  supply  the  material  wants  of  the  other 
members  of  her  family. 

a.  Or  dependence  on  others  for  the  gratification  of  all 
her  wishes. 

b.  She  consents  or  is  compelled  to  consent  to  the  stand- 
ard of  moral,  social,  and  industrial  obligations  which 
is  required  of  her. 


70  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Any   desire   to  become   an  important   factor   in  the 
progress  of  the  world  is  looked  upon  with  disdain. 

d.  The  wife  of  the  poor  man  tends  to  become  a  ma- 
chine; of  the  rich  man,  an  expensive  ornament  or 
plaything. 

(a)  In  the  latter  case,  she  is  not  a  producer,  but 
with  the  increasing  standard  of  elaborate 
dressing,  often  becomes  a  leading  consumer. 

(3)  Dependence  in  industry. 

a.  In  1910,  about  6,000,000  women,.  16  years  of  age  and 
over,  were  engaged  in  ''gainful  occupations." 

(a)  This  represents  about  one-fifth  of  the  women 
in  the  country,  16  years  of  age  and  over. 

(b)  Over  one-half  of  the  number  so  employed  (or 
more  than  3,000,000)  are  between  the  ages  of 
16  and  24. 

b.  Without  the  ballot  or  effective  labor  unions  to  pro- 
tect themselves,  women  are  largely  subjected  to  the 
will  of  the  male  majority. 

(4)  Ideas  which  should  be  discarded. 

a.  That  it  is  as  disgraceful  for  a  girl  to  develop  physical- 
ly, as  it  is  for  a  boy  to  atrophy  physically. 

b.  That    every    effort    should    be    directed   toward    the 
training  of  a  man  for  the  pursuit  of  an  occupation, 
but  that  no   training  whatever   should  be   provided 
for  a  girl  in  making  a  choice  of  a  father  for  her 
children. 

c.  That  a  girl  should  grow  up  to  be  supported  in  idle- 
ness by  her  husband. 

d.  That    a    woman    can    develop    a    character    without 
working. 

e.  That  the  modern  American  home  is  to  be  a  castle  to 
be  frequently  and  largely  deserted. 

(a)  Or  that  the  American  home  is  simply  a  lodg- 
ing house. 

/.  That  to  the  average  husband,  the  word  "helpmeet" 
means  "second  fiddle." 

(5)  If  the  women  of  the  future  are  to  be  mothers  of  noble 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  71 

children  and  to  achieve  useful  things,  the  rising  genera- 
tion of  women  must  have  three  things: 

a.  Opportunity  to  choose  a  suited  occupation,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  widest  use  of  leisure  time,  and  effective 
social  self-development. 
Suggested  Readings : — 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  VI. 
Ellis,  Man  and  Woman,  389-94. 
Ross,  Changing  America,  Ch.  V. 
Thomas,  Sex  and  Society,  233-314. 

SECTION  34.    CONSERVATION  OF  THE  CHILD. 

(1)  "Child  labor"  usually  refers  to  manufacturing  rather  than 
to  agriculture. 

a.  The    great    manufacturing    states     (Penn.,    N.    Y., 
Mass.,  Ills.)    have  the  largest  numbers  of  children 
in  manufacturing. 

b.  If  agriculture  be  included,  the  southern  states  have 
the  greatest  totals  of  child  laborers. 

c.  Child  labor  is  found  chiefly  in  cotton  mills,  glass  fac- 
tories, coal  mines,  agriculture. 

d.  Probably    1,750,000  children,    15   years   of   age   and 
under,  who  are  "gainfully  employed"  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time. 

(2)  Things    are    not    really    cheap    because    they    cost    little 
money. 

a.  Their  cost  may  have  been  very  great  because  of  the 
necessity  of  adding  the  child  life  that  has  been  ex- 
pended in  their  manufacture. 

b.  Every  person  who  gets  "bargains"  that  are  cheap  be- 
cause they  are  child-made  is  partly  responsible  for 
child-labor. 

c.  If  the  forces  of  the  dollar  win,  the  child's  life  is 
hardened   into   a   money-making   machine,   grinding 
for  a  space,  and  then  giving  sway  to  another. 

d.  For  every  dollar  earned  by  a  child  under  fourteen 
years  of  age,  tenfold  will  be  taken  from  his  earning 
capacity  in  later  years  (Woodward). 


72  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

e.  Child  labor  is  undoubtedly  cheap  labor,  but  the  pro- 
duct is  cheaper  than  the  labor  involved  in  its  creation. 

(3)  Child  labor  is  a  process  of  mind  stunting. 

a.  The   child    is    removed    from   the   possibility    of    an 
education. 

b.  Grind,  monotony,  and   degeneration  are  substituted 
for  enthsuiasm,  play,  and  life. 

c.  The   child's   body   is    forming   at    fourteen,    and   its 
growth  should  not  be  marred  by  imposing  upon  it 
the  restrictions  which  come  from  factory  life. 

(4)  Child  labor  is  demoralizing. 

a.  The  child  ceases  to  be  a  child  in  knowledge  while 
he  or  she  is  still  a  child  in  ideas. 

b.  No  adequate  home  influence  or  school  influence  to 
ward  off  the  dangers. 

c.  The  child  is  pilot,  but  how  easily  misguided. 

d.  Is  often  surrounded  with  unbearable  monotony,  bad 
air,  wayward  companions,  and  every  other  form  of 
undesirable  influence. 

e.  The  nervous  strain  is  very  great;  the  child  is  often 
''speeded  up"  with  the  adults. 

(a)  He  seeks  relief  for  his  strained  nervous  sys- 
tem in  some  kind  of  activity  which  leads  ulti- 
mately to  the  police  court. 

(5)  Child  labor  helps  to  destroy  family  life. 

a.  The  girl  in  the  factory  is  frequently  untrained  in  the 
maintenance  of  a  home. 

b.  Factory  work  makes  of  the  girl  a  wife  and  mother 
incapable  by  knowledge  or  training  of  doing  her  duty 
by  her  children,  her  home,  or  her  husband. 

c.  It  makes  of  the  boy  an  unskilled  worker,  incapable 
of  earning  large  means,  and  of  becoming  a  worthy 
father. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  XIII. 
Adams  and  Sumner,  Labor  Problems,  Chs.  II,  XL 
Pamphlets,  National  Child  Labor  Committee. 
Clopper,  Child  Labor  in  the  City  Street,  Ch.  I. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  73 

SECTION  35.     LOW  STANDARD  FAMILIES. 

(1)  The  low  standard  family  really  lives  on  a  low  standard. 

a.  15,000  school  children  in  Chicago  alone  (7%  of  all 
the   elementary   school   children)    reported  as  being 
underfed,  i.  e.,  on  a  low  standard. 

b.  5,000  children  who  attend  the  schools  of  Chicago  are 
habitually  hungry. 

c.  The  average  prosperous  member  of  the  community 
does  not  realize  what  "low  standard"  means. 

(2)  What  is  a  minimum  standard  of  living? 

a.  A  study  of  the  budgets  of  several  hundred  working- 
men's  families  in  New  York  City  (Chapin)  indicates: 
(a)  An  income  of  $900  or  over  probably  permits 
the  maintenance  of  a  normal  standard,  at  least 
so  far  as  the  physical  man  is  concerned. 

(b)  For  a  family  of  five,  a  man,  wife,  and  three 
children  under  fourteen  years  of  age. 

(c)  On  Manhattan  Island,  the  amount  needed  is 
practically  three  dollars  a  day. 

(3)  A  compilation  of  the  incomes  in  workingmen's  families  in 
the  North  Atlantic  States  (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor)  shows 
the  average  total  income  of  the  family  to  be  $660, — below 
a  "living  wage." 

a.  As  this  figure  is  an  average,  there  must  be  many 
families  whose  total  income  is  far  below  $660. 

(4)  Competition  of  the  "single  man"  standard  of  wages. 

a.  The    incoming    of    immigrants     from    southeastern 
Europe  tends  to  establish  a  low  level  of  the  wages 
of  common  labor  by  placing  them  on  a  "single  man" 
basis. 

b.  Majority  of  these  immigrants  are  single  men  or  men 
whose  wives  are  left  in  Europe. 

c.  They  come  from  lower  standard  countries. 

d.  Immigrants  from  southeastern  Europe  tend  to  estab- 
lish a  "single  man"  foreign  standard  for  American 
wages. 

(5)  Remedies  for  low  standards. 


74  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Labor  unions  are  performing  an  important  function 
as  educators  of  the  low  standard  workmen. 

(a)   Handicapped  because  the  best  unions  are  in 
the  skilled  trades. 

b.  Minimum  wage  laws,  met  with  success  in  Victoria, 
are  being  tried  in  England,  introduced  in  the  United 
States  (1912). 

c.  Checking    of    low    standard    immigration    until    the 
country  has  developed  adequate  distribution  and  as- 
similation. 

d.  Education, — hygienic,  economic,  moral  and  religious. 

e.  The  National  Consumers'  League  has  been  insisting 
upon  the  ultimate  responsibility  of  the  consumer  for 
low  standard  conditions  of  production. 

/.  The  consumer  is  ultimately  responsible,  and  he  must 
therefore  insist  that  conditions  of  decency  be  main- 
tained. 

g.  The  public  must  realize  that  an  employer  who  pays 
low  wages  is  anti-social. 

(a)   He  is  grafting, — on  the  life  and  health  of  the 
future,  lowering  vitality,  creating  social  cost. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  IV. 
Spargo,  The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children,  Ch.  II. 
Devine,  Misery  and  its  Causes,  Chs.  I,  V. 
Pamphlets,   National   Consumers'   League. 
Adams  and  Sumner,  Labor  Problems,  Ch.  IV. 

SECTION  36.    THE  INSTABILITY  OF  THE  MODERN 
FAMILY:  DIVORCE. 

(1)  Family  life  at  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century  is  in  a 
more  unstable  condition  than  at  any  time  since  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era. 

a.  This  instability  has  been  most  evident  in  the  United 
States. 

b.  By   1885,  this  country  had  more  divorces  annually 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  Christian  civilized  world  put 
together. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  75 

c.  In  1905,  United  States  recorded  over  67,000  divorces, 
rest  of  the  Christian  world  recorded  40,000. 

d.  Rate  of  divorce  to  the  number  of  marriages  in  1905 
higher  in  United  States  than  in  other  countries  in 
following  proportion : 

(a)  In  United  States,  one  divorce  to  every  12 
marriages;  in  Switzerland,  one  to  every  22 
marriages ;  in  France,  one  to  every  30  mar- 
riages; in  Germany,  one  to  every  44  mar- 
riages; in  England,  one  to  every  400  mar- 
riages. 

e.  Divorces  are  increasing  in  United  States  faster  than 
population  apparently. 

(2)  Distribution  of  divorces  in  the  United  States. 

a.  Higher  in  cities  than  in  their  surrounding  country 
districts. 

b.  Divorce  rate  is  about  four  times  as  high  among  child- 
less couples  as  among  couples  who  have  children. 

c.  Least  among  Catholics,  then  rank  Jews,  then  Pro- 
testants, highest  among  persons  of  no  religious  pro- 
fession. 

d    Much  higher  among  the  native  whites  than  among 

foreign-born. 
e.  Two-thirds  of  divorces  are  granted  on  demand  of 

wife. 

(3)  Grounds  for  granting  divorce. 

a.  Some  thirty-six  grounds  for  absolute  divorce  recog- 
nized by  the  laws  of  the  several  states. 

(4)  Causes  of  the  increase  of  divorce  in  the  United  States. 

a.  Decreasing  influence  of  the  religious  idea  that  mar- 
riage is  a  sacred  and  not  a  mere  civil  institution. 

b.  The  growing  spirit  of  individualism. 

c.  The  Woman's  Rights  movement — woman  tends  no 
longer  to  submit  to  injustices  as  formerly. 

d.  Growth    of    modern    industrialism,    which    tends    to 
make  home  only  a  lodging-place. 

e.  Growth   of   modern   cities — in   crowded   sections   of 
which  a  normal  home  is  impossible. 


76  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

f.  Higher   cost   of   living — many   unable   to   meet   de- 
mands. 

g.  Higher    age    of    marriage — harder    to    adjust    diffi- 
culties. 

h.  Increasing  laxity  of  laws  regarding  divorce  and  espe- 
cially in  the  administration  of  divorce  laws. 
(5)   Remedial  measures — restrictions  upon  the  remarriage  of 
divorced  parties. 

co.  Uniform  federal  divorce  and  marriage  laws  instead 

of  lax  and  varied  state  laws. 

b.  Development  of  a  strong  public  opinion  through  edu- 
cation in  regard  to  the  sacredness  of  marriage  as  a 
social  institution. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  VII. 
Dealey,  The   Family  in  its   Sociological  Aspects,   Ch.  VII, 

IX,  XL 

Adler,  Marriage  and  Divorce,  Lect.  II. 
Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  VIII. 
Wright,  Practical  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 

SECTION   37.    THE   PERVERSION   OF   THE   SEX   IN- 
STINCT: THE  SOCIAL  EVIL. 

(1)  Discussion  of  sexual  immorality  has  been  a  much-avoided 
subject. 

a.  Neglected  by  the  church — posing  as  the  guardian  of 
public  and  private  morality. 

b.  Ignored  by  the  school — from  which  the  child  should 
receive  the  instruction  which  best  fits  him  for  use- 
fulness. 

c.  Avoided  by  the  prudish  weakness  of  the  parent. 

d.  Hence  its  discussion  has  been  left  to  the  gamins  of 
the  street. 

e.  Ignorance  of  sexual  hygiene  added  to  the  sexual  in- 
stinct results  in  a  combination  productive  of  as  great 
evil  as  any  scourge  that  has  afflicted  mankind. 

(2)  As  a  result  of  the  "social  evil,"  thousands  of  girls  and 
women  are  annually  set  aside,  frequently  in  segregated 
districts,  as  a  sacrifice. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  77 

a.  New  York  City  is  reported  to  have,  continually,  30,- 
000  such  women  and  girls,  the  sale  of  whose  virtues 
and  bodies  annually  returns  $50,000,000  to  $60,- 
000,000. 

(a)  Of  whom  10,000  come  from  respectable 
homes,  and  whose  places  will  be  taken  by  10,- 
000  little  girls  now  innocently  at  play. 

(3)  The   social   evil  is   always   followed  by  a   special   set  of 
diseases. 

a.  Disabilities,  suffering,  premature  death  follows  in  the 
wake    of    these    diseases — which    fill    hospitals    and 
asylums  with  human  wrecks. 

b.  The  busiest  specialty  of  medicine  is  that  which  is 
concerned  with  these  diseases. 

c.  Most   revolting   feature   of   these   infections   is   that 
they  are  not  confined  to  immoral  men  and  women — 
but  become  the  diseases  of  virtuous  wives  and  inno- 
cent children. 

(4)  Causes  of  the  social  evil. 

a.  Most  important  cause  today  is  the  love  of  money — 
for  the  gain  that  can  be  secured. 

b.  Next  most  important  cause  is  masculine  unchastity. 

c.  Closely  packed  population  of  both  sexes  in  congested 
sections  of  our  cities — furnishes  breeding-places  for 
this  evil. 

d.  Double   standard  of  morality  for  men  and  women. 

(a)  A  woman  who  succumbs  to  the  evil  becomes  a 
social  outcast. 

(b)  A  man  who  is  equally  guilty  may  remain  a 
social  lion  and  be  received  in  the  most  polite 
society. 

e.  Large  proportion  of  men  and  larger  proportion  of 
women    owe    their   initial    debauch    to    influence    of 
alcohol. 

(5)  Methods  of  prevention. 

a.  Since  the  majority  of  women  fall  before  the  age  of 
18  and  a  majority  of  infected  men  become  so  before 
21,  the  responsibility  of  society  is  greater  than  that 
of  these  immature  individuals. 


78  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  Provision  of  higher  forms  of  recreation  to  supplant 
attractions  which  stimulate  sensuality;  prohibition  of 
girls  and  women  in  saloons  and  dance-halls. 

c.  Education  of  children  in  sex  hygiene ;  health  require- 
ment for  marriage. 

d.  Breaking  the  custom  of  silence  among  physicians, — 
small-pox  reported  to  health  officer  and  quarantined ; 
while   social   diseases,   as   virulent   and   more   wide- 
spread, and  no  measures  taken  to  prevent  their  dis- 
semination. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Ellis,  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene,  Chs.  XIII,  IX. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  314-27. 

Addams,  A  New  Conscience  and  An  Ancient  Evil,  Ch.  I. 
Taylor,  "Story  of  the  Chicago  Vice  Commission,"  Survey, 
26;  239-47. 

SECTION  38.    FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  FAMILY  IN  SO- 
CIAL PROGRESS. 

(1)  The  family  is  the  primary  social  structure. 

a.  Since  it  contains  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  it  is  capable 
of    reproducing    itself,    and    hence    of    reproducing 
society. 

b.  Relations  of  superior  and  subordinate,  and  of  equal- 
ity, which  enter  so  largely  into  the  structure  of  all 
social   institutions   are   especially   well   developed   in 
the  family  relationships. 

(2)  Functions  of  the  family  in  conserving  the  social  order. 

at.  Chief  institution  in  society  for  transmitting  from  one 
generation  to  another,  social  possessions  of  all  sorts. 

b.  Property  in  the  form  of  land,  houses,  personal  prop- 
erty, is  passed  from  generation  to  generation  through 
the  family. 

c.  Language  is  very  generally  transmitted  in  the  family. 

d.  Ideas,  beliefs  regarding  governments,  religion,  moral 
standards,    artistic    tastes,    etc.,    are    largely    trans- 
mitted through  the  family. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  79 

(3)  Functions  of  the  family  in  promoting  social  advance. 

a.  The  family  is  the  almost  sole  generator  of  altruism  in 
human  society. 

b.  Upon  altruism  society  depends  for  every  upward  ad- 
vance in  co-operation. 

(a)  Hence  the  family  is  the  chief  source  of  social 
progress. 

c.  Family  life  is  a  school  for  socialization. 

(a)  The  family  meal,  when  all  members  gather 
together,  is  just  becoming  recognized  as  a 
great  socializing  factor. 

(4)  A  problem — modern  industry  versus  the  home. 

a.  Primitively  industry  was  subordinate  to  and  centered 
in  the  home ;  modern  industry  is  an  enormous  expan- 
sion of  primitive  house-keeping. 

b.  Removal  of  industries   from   the   family  group  has 
often  been  followed  by  the  removal  of  the  parents 
and  children  from  the  home. 

(a)  And  by  the  practical  disintegration  of  the 
family. 

c.  Subordination  of  industry  to  the  family  is  necessary. 

(a)  No  sane  and  stable  life  until  requirements  of 
industry,  of  wealth-getting  are  subordinated 
to  the  requirements  of  the  family  for  the  good 
birth  and  proper  rearing  of  children. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  III. 
Dealey,  The  Family  in  its  Sociological  Aspects,  Ch.  I. 
Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 
Cooley,  Social  Organization,  Ch.  XXXI. 
Patten,  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Ch.  III. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  V . 
Addams,  J.,  A  New  Conscience  and  an  Ancient  Evil,  Macm. ; 

1912. 

Adler,  F.,  Marriage  and  Divorce,  McClure,  Phillips ;  1905. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1905. 
Carver,  T.  N.,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ginn. ;  1905. 


80  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  Scribner's;  1909. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett;  1909. 
Drummond,  H.,  The  Ascent  of  Man,  Pott;  1895. 
Ellis,  H.,  The  Task  of  S6cial  Hygiene,  Houghton,  Mifflin  ; 

1912. 
Ellwood,   C.   A.,    Sociology   and   Modern   Social   Problems, 

American  Book;  1910. 

Fairbanks,  A.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner's;  1910. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Macm. ;  1907. 
Godfrey,  H.,  The  Health  of  the  City,  Houghton,  Mifflin; 

1910. 
Howard,  G.  E.,  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions,  U.  of 

Chi.  Pr. ;  1904. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Macm. ; 

1908. 

McDougall,  W.,  Social  Psychology,  Luce;  1909. 
Nearing,  S.,  Social  Adjustment,  Macm.;  1911. 
Patten,  S'.  N.,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Macm. ;  1907. 
Pyle,  W.  L.,  Personal  Hygiene,  Saunders,  1912. 
Ribot,  Th.,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Scribner's;  1911. 
Riis,  J.,  Peril  and  Preservation  of  the  Home,  Jacobs ;  1903. 
Riis,  J.,  Battle  with  the  Slum,  Macm. ;  1902. 
Veiller,  L.,  Housing  Reform,  Char.   Pub.   Comm. ;   1910. 
Westermarck,  E.,  History  of  Human  Marriage,  Macm. ;  1902. 
Wright,  C.  D.,  Practical  Sociology,  Longmans ;  1909. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  V. 

1.  Woman's  Contributions  to  Social  Progress. 

2.  The  Social  Superiority  of  Monogamy. 

3.  Pensions  for  Mothers. 

4.  The  Work  of  Women's  Clubs. 

5.  Women  in  Industry. 

6.  The  Home  as  Affected  by  "The  Woman's  Rights  Move- 
ment.'' 

7.  Women  as  Citizens. 

8.  The  Family  in  a  Typical  Mill-town. 

9.  Democracy  in  the  Household. 

10.  Relation  of  the  Family  to  Crime. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ECONOMIC  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION   39.  FIRST    STEPS   IN    INDUSTRIAL   PROG- 
RESS. 

(1)  Hunger  for  food  constitutes  the  most  common  occasion 
for  releasing  the  power  of  the  will. 

a.  Until  appetite  is  gratified,  man  has  a  powerful  in- 
centive to  search  actively  for  nutriment. 

b.  This  enforced  search  for  food  has  the  advantage  that 
effort  so  spent  helps  to  maintain  physical  vigor. 

(2)  Primitive  man  lived  upon  what  he  could  find  rather  than 
upon  things  he  could  raise  or  make. 

a.  He  gorged  and  starved,  feasted  and  fasted. 

b.  Beginning  of  institution  of  private  property  appears 
in  the  recognition  of  the  individual's  right  to  articles 
of  personal  use. 

c.  Private  property  in  land  is  absent. 

d.  Great  advance  when  man  began   to   exercise   fore- 
sight by  forbearing  to  eat  all  on  hand. 

(a)   Learned  to  dry  foods  in  the  sun  and  later  by 
fire. 

(3)  "Invention"  of  fire  a  great  achievement  for  primitive  man. 

(4)  Lines  of  evolution  in  things  invented. 

a.  The  rude  shelter  of  boughs  and  twigs  is  the  ancestor 
of  the  marble  palace. 

b.  The    aboriginal    roast,    of    the    costly    seven-course 
banquet. 

c.  The  digging-stock,  of  the  twenty-furrow  plough. 

d.  The  carrying-strap,  of  the  Overland  Limited. 

e.  Transition     from     houseless,     unclothed     beings     to 
"billionaires." 

81 


82  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(5)  Invention   of   countless   tools — man   the   only   tool   using 
animal. 

a.  For  cutting  (knives),  for  abrasing  (scrapers),  for 
fracturing  (hammers),  for  perforating  (needles, 
awls),  for  grasping  (tongs),  for  joining  (nails),  etc. 

(6)  Remarkable  advance  was  made  when  animals  were  do- 
mesticated. 

a.  In  the  dog,  man  had  an  assistant  in  the  chase,  if 
necessary,  a  food  supply. 

b.  Others  served  as  beasts  of  burden,  food  supply,  etc. 

c.  Domestication  may  have  developed  in  regions  where 
considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  hoe-culture. 

d.  As  this  knowledge  spread,  certain  tribes  became  and 
remained  pastoral  nomads. 

(a)  Fixed   abode    is    not   possible;    cities    do   not 
develop. 

(b)  Frequently  individual  accumulations  of  wealth, 
consisting  mostly  of  herds  and  flocks. 

e.  Men  no  longer  needed  to  starve  through  the  winter — 
they  could  subsist  on  abundant  food  supplies  in  their 
flocks. 

f.  The  hunt  ceased  to  be  the  chief  means  of  support — 
became  secondary  to  the  care  and  feeding  of  flocks 
and  herds. 

g.  Followed  in  general  by  the  agricultural  stage  of  in- 
dustrial development. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Ely,  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society,  Ch.  II. 

Starr,  Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress,  Chs.  Ill,  IV, 

IX,  XIII. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  96-109. 

Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  VIII. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  III. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  V. 

SECTION  40.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

(1)   Another  social  advance  when  man  learned  that  he  must 
spare  the  vegetable  sources  of  his  nourishment. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  83 

a.  Rough  cultivation  with  the  hoe  developed  first. 

b.  The  sparing  of  roots  and  tubers  developed  into  tillage 
of  the  soil  with  oxen  and  plough. 

c.  Hoe-culture  first  developed  by  women. 

d.  When  men  turned  from  the  hunt  to  hoe-culture,  they 
applied  the  technical  skill  gained  in  the  former  to 
the  latter. 

e.  With   rough   agriculture,  the   primitive   man  passed 
from  flesh  diet  of  nomadism  to  a  preponderant  use  of 
vegetative  foods. 

/.  Roaming  life  of  nomadism  supplanted  by  settled  life 
required  by  agriculture. 

(2)  Production  of  wealth  is  increased  especially  by  the  use  of 
animal  power  in  cultivating  the  soil. 

(3)  With  cultivation  of  soil  and  accompanying  vast  increase 
in  food  supply,  population  increases  rapidly. 

a.  Fixed  abodes  and  increased  control  over  food  supply 
develops  village  communities. 

(4)  With  stationary  abodes,  holding  slaves  becomes  feasible: 

a.  Under  nomadism  necessary  to  kill  captives  taken  in 
war;  with  agriculture  better  to  enslave  captives  than 
to  kill  them. 

b.  Cultivation   of  soil  by  slave-labor,  at  first  such  an 
apparent  improvement,  gradually  becomes  economic- 
ally unprofitable. 

(a)   Supplanted  first  by  serfdom,  then  by  free  labor. 

(5)  England  was  almost  wholly  agricultural  for  three  centuries 
following  the  Norman  Conquest. 

a.  Population  lived  in  manors — were  serfs. 

(6)  Development  of  American  agriculture  is  more  closely  re- 
lated to  that  of  Great  Britain  than  to  that  of  any  other 
part  of  the  world. 

a.  First  era,  1607  to  1776,  during  which  the  colonists 
transplanted    European    methods    of    agriculture    to 
to  American  soil  and  re-adapted  them  to  the  new 
conditions. 

b.  Second  period,  1776  to  1833,  marked  by  the  conquest 
of  the  great  interior  valleys  and  forests,  the  establish- 


84  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

ment  of  the  public  land  policy  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. 

c.  Period  of  transformation  from  1833,  when  nearly  all 
farm  work  was  done  by  hand,  to  1864.  when  nearly 
all  farm  operations  were  done  by  machinery  driven  by 

horse-power. 

d.  Period  of  westward  expansion,  1864  to  1888,  stimu- 
lated by   development  of  the   railroads,  the   Home- 
stead Laws  of  1862  and  1864,  etc. 

e.  Period  of  reorganization,   1888  to  the  present  time, 
marked  by, 

(a)  More  systematic  application  of  principles  of 
experimental  science  to  agriculture. 

(b)  Transition  from  extensive  to  intensive  agri- 
culture. 

(7)  The  present  farm  problem — in  maintaining  upon  our  farms 
a  class  of  people  who  have  succeeded  in  procuring  for 
themselves  the  highest  possible  class  status. 

a.  Not  only  in  the  industrial,  but  in  the  social  order,  as 
measured  by  the  demands  of  the  highest  sociological 
ideals. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Carver,  Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  Ch.  II. 
Butterfield,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress,  Ch.  II. 
Bullock,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Ch.  IV. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXXI. 
Survey,  "Is  an  Organized  Country  Life  Movement  Possi- 
ble?" Jan.  4,  1913,  449-56. 

SECTION  41.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FACTORY 
SYSTEM  OF  INDUSTRY. 

(1)  The  factory  system,  an  outgrowth  of  the  domestic  sys- 
tem and  handicraft  stage. 

a.  The  handicraft  stage  began  (for  example,  in  Eng- 
land) with  the  development  of  towns  as  centers  of 
trade  about  the  13th  century. 

(a)   Extended  to  the  introduction  of  power  ma- 
chinery about  1775. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  85 

(b)  Merchants  gilds  developed  to  keep  a  monopoly 
of  trade  for  the  merchants  of  the  given  towns. 

(c)  Superseded  by  craft  gilds  which  specified  how 
each  given  craft  should  be  carried  on. 

(d)  Manufacturing  cities  became  the  rivals  of  the 
feudal  lords. 

(e)  Gild  system  superseded  by  the  domestic  sys- 
tem in  which  the  functions  of  merchants  and 

workman  were  separated. 

b.  Decay  of  town  authority  was  superseded  by  national 
system  of  regulation — the  Mercantile  system. 

(a)  Guidance  of  economic  affairs  so  as  to  increase 
the  commercial  and  military  power  of  the  na- 
tion. 

(2)  The   factory   system   developed  during  the  so-called   In- 
dustrial Evolution   (in  England,  1770-1840). 

a.  During  the  last  half  of  the  18th  century,  progress  of 
invention  was  exceptionally  rapid. 

(a)  The   great   invention   was   the   application  of 
steam  as  a  motive  force. 

(b)  Immediately     hand-driven    tools     were     sup- 
planted by  power-driven  machinery. 

(c)  And  the  home  as  the  unit  of  production  gave 
way  to  the  factory. 

(d)  Use  of  expensive  machinery  and  steam  power 
made  it  impossible  for  men  to  carry  on  their 
work  in  their  own  homes. 

b.  With    factory    system    arose    two    great    industrial 
classes,   laborers   and  capitalists,   with  a   great  gulf 
between. 

c.  With  factory  system  and  large-scale  production,  came 
division  of  labor. 

(a)  Implies  mutual  dependence — each  individual 
relies  upon  many  others  to  complete  his  own 
one-sided  activity. 

(3)  Industry   under  the   developing   factory   system   felt   en- 
cumbered by  the  old-time  mercantile  laws  and  restrictions. 

a.  Adam  Smith  advocated  free  competition. 

b.  Laisses  faire  policy  succeeded  mercantilism. 


86  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(4)  Reaction  against  the  laissez  faire  methods  of  controlling 
the  factory  system. 

a.  Labor  has  had  to  be  protected. 

(a) A  minimum  age  and  schooling  for  children 
at  work. 

(b)  Fencing  in  of  dangerous  machinery;   sanita- 
tion in  factories ;  shorter  hours. 

(c)  Increasing  liability  of  employers  in  cases  of 
accidents  to  their  employees. 

b.  Quality  of  goods  has  had  to  be  safe-guarded. 

(a)  Inspection  of  manufactured  goods  by  the  state 
to  prevent  adulteration  now  an  accepted  prin- 
ciple. 

c.  Extension  of  government  enterprise, — not  only  regu- 
lation of  industry,  but  increasing  field  directly  man- 
aged by  the  state;  also  development  of  government 
owned  and  operated  manufactures. 

Suggested  Readings : 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Chs.  IV,  V. 
Bullock,   Selected  Readings  in  Economics,   Ch.  V. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  VI. 
Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States,  Chs.  IV, 

XI,  XIII. 
Toynbee,  The  Industrial  Revolution,  Ch.  VIII. 

SECTION  42.    RISE  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  LA- 
BOR CLASSES. 

(1)  Primitive    division    of   labor, — men   hunted    and    fought, 
women  engaged  in  hoe-culture  and  did  menial  work  about 
the  habitation. 

(2)  "Agricultural  stage" — slaves  used  at  first  to  do  hard  labor, 
but   later   under   manorial   economy,    serfs   or   half-freed 
slaves  found  more  profitable. 

(3)  In  handicraft  stage,  free  labor  was  found  more  profitable 
than  serf  or  slave. 

a.  Motive  for  work  changed  from  fear  to  self-interest — 
far  greater  returns. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  87 

(4)  With  free  labor,  organization  of  labor  proper  begins. 

a.  Craft  gilds  of  mediaeval  times  were  among  the  first 
organizations  of  productive  forces. 

b.  Labor  unions  began,  as  they  now  exist,  not  among 
general  laborers  but  among  skilled  classes. 

(a)  Aim :  to  get  better  wages,  shorter  hours,  im- 
proved conditions. 

c.  Early   opposition  of   employers   took   aspect  of   dis- 
couragement of  unions. 

(a)  Labor  unions  at  first  declared  illegal — as  con- 
spiracies against  employers. 

(5)  Five  periods  in  history  of  labor  unions  in  United  States. 

a.  Germinal  period,   1790-1825, — repression  and  perse- 
cution. 

(a)  Declared  as  conspiracies,  yet  established  on  the 
whole  a  growing  sense  of  solidarity  among 
wage-earners. 

b.  Revolutionary   period,    1825-1850, — when   legislative 
approval  was  secured,  labor  made  unjust  demands  of 
employers. 

(a)  Turned  ideals  of  unions  into  radical,  socialistic 
principles. 

c.  Period    of    nationalism,    1850-1865, — a    marked    im- 
provement in  the  government  and  administration  of 
the  trade  union. 

(a)  Typographical  union  in  1850  was  first  trade  to 
be  organized  nationally. 

(b)  By  1866,  more  than  thirty  trades  had  estab- 
lished national  organizations. 

d.  Period    of    federation,    1865-1893,— marked    by    the 
meteoric  rise  of  Knights  of  Labor,  and  by  the  more 
permanent  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

e.  Present  period  of  collective  bargaining — representa- 
tives of  powerful  labor  organizations  meet  representa- 
tives of  powerful  employers'  associations  and  buy  and 
sell  labor. 

(6)  Historical  lessons. 

a.  Danger  to  unions  of  direct  participation  in  politics. 


88  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  Fundamental  unit  of  labor  organization  must  be  a 
trade  or  industrial  body. 

c.  Ideals  must  not  have  undue  elevation,  nor  be  super- 
abundant. 

d.  Leaders  must  be  rational  and  socialized. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Adams  and  Sumner,  Labor  Problems,  Chs.  VII,  XIII. 
Bullock,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Ch.  XIX. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXIII. 
Fetter,  Source-book  in  Economics,  Ch.  IV. 
Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  LV. 

SECTION  43.    LARGE-SCALE  PRODUCTION:  ITS  AD- 
VANTAGES, LIMITATIONS,  AND  CONTROL. 

(1)  Large-scale  production  means  the  concentration  of  em- 
ployment. 

a.  While   new   factories  are  being  continually  started, 
there  are  also  strong  tendencies  toward  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  unit. 

b.  In    the    United    States,    the    maximum    number    of 
manufacturing  establishments  in  many  branches  was 
reached  in  the  Seventies. 

(2)  Two  kinds  of  capitalistic  combinations  of  production. 

a.  Consolidation  of  like  units  into  a  larger  whole. 

b.  Integration  of  unlike  units — as  of  mining  and  trans- 
portation companies. 

(3)  Combinations  of  capital  have  undergone  several  phases. 

a.  Earliest  form  was  the  agreement  of  independent  con- 
cerns to  fix  prices — to  increase  profits  by  restricting 
competition. 

b.  Next  step  was  agreement  to  divide  the  field,  each 
enterprise  contracting  to  limit  its  activity  to  a  par- 
ticular section. 

c.  Third  phase  is  the   pool  or  attempt  to  restrict  the 
output  rather  than  the  price  or  field — each  member 
of  the  combination  having  an  alloted  percentage  of 
production. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  89 

d.  Then  the   formation  of  "trust"  companies,  whereby 
constituent  companies  turn  business  over  to  a  board 
of     central     trustees,     receiving     trust     certificates, 
abandoning  to  the  "trust"  entire  operation  of  bus- 
iness. 

(a)  Reached  in  1882  by  formation  of  Standard 
Oil  Trust. 

e.  Followed  by  the  "holding  corporation" — a  new  cen- 
tral corporation  is  formed  to  buy  up  a  majority  in- 
terest of  stock  of  individual  corporations. 

(a)  Each  constituent  corporation  is  operated  as  a 
separate  unit. 

(b)  But  its  capacity  is  virtually  controlled  by  the 
directory  of  the  parent  company. 

(c)  The  trust  in  a  new  and  more  effective  form. 

(d)  Examples:     U.  S.  Steel  Corporation  of  1901, 
American  Tobacco  Company  of  1904. 

(e)  Plan  failed  when  applied  to  railways  in  case 
of  the   Northern   Securities   Co., — because  of 
special  prohibitive  legislation. 

/.  Present  tendency  is  toward  the  so-called  system  of 
"community  of  interests." 

(a)  Whereby  the  same  directors  virtually  possess 
a  controlling  voice  in  the  management  of  each 
constituent  company. 

(b)   Can't  prevent  combinations  of  the  last  named 
type ;  and  alternative  is  government  regulation. 
(4)   Social  effects  of  large-scale  enterprise. 

a.  Advantage  of  combinations  is  lower  cost;  but  object 
of  combinations  is  higher  profits. 

b.  Tend  to  become  impersonal;  responsibility  hard  to 
locate. 

c.  Present  a  more  solid  front  to  the  demands  of  labor 
unions. 

d.  Independent   producer  undoubtedly   assailed   by  the 
combination. 

e.  Powerful  attempts  to  control  tariff  and  other  legisla'- 
tion. 


90  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Hobson,  Evolution  of  Modern  Capitalism,  Ch.  V. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Chs.  VI.,  XXII.,  XXXV. 
Van  Hise,  Concentration  and  Control,  Chs.  I,  V. 
Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  Chs.  IV,  LXIII. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Chs.  X,  XIII,  XXVI. 

SECTION    44.     DANGEROUS'    TRADES     AND     INDUS- 
TRIAL ACCIDENTS. 

(1)  The  trades  which  induce  disease  are  obviously  dangerous. 

(2)  Dust  and  gas  play  a  leading  part  in  inducing  trade  dis- 
eases. 

a.  Dust  may  prove  injurious  to  the  worker  by  (a)  irri- 
tating the  skin,  (b)  by  entering  the  lungs,  and  (c) 
by  entering  the  alimentary  canal. 

b.  In  the  coal  miner's  lungs  there  can  be  observed  small 
masses  of  cells  deeply  ladened  with  black  carbon  par- 
ticles surrounded  by  a  hardened  zone  of  altered  lung 
(Oliver). 

c.  The  entrance  of  dust  into  the  lung  finally  converts  it 
into  ''a  hard  and  almost  solid  organ." 

d.  This  alteration  of  the  lung  tissue  affords  an  easy 
hold  for  the  tuberculosis  bacillus. 

e.  In  England,  in  non-dusty  trades  the  deaths  per  1000 
workers  due  to  phthisis,  2.39,  but  in  the  dusty  trades, 
5.42  (Oliver). 

(3)  Lead   poisoning  occurs   in  thirteen  trades — most  severe, 
in  white  lead  manufacturing. 

a.  The  most  usual  result  of  lead  poisoning  is  gastritis. 
(a)   Since    most   of    the    lead    enters    the    system 
through  the  alimentary  canal. 

(4)  Industrial  accidents  are  the  sudden  physical  results  that 
are  involved  in  the  lack  of  adjustment  between  men  and 
their  industrial  environment. 

a.  Railroad  accidents:  in  1907,  11,839  persons  were 
killed  in  railroad  accidents  in  the  United  States ;  and 
111,000  persons  were  injured. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  91 

(a)  In  1907  one  trainman  was  killed  for  every  125 
employed;  and  one  trainman  in  every  8  employed 
was  injured. 

b.  Coal  mine  accidents:  in   1908  in  the  United  States, 
2450  miners  were  killed  and  6772  were  injured. 

(a)  This  tremendous  sacrifice  of  life  in  coal  mines 
wholly  unjustifiable. 

c.  Factory  accidents :  in  New  York  alone,  from  1901  to 
1906,  39,244  accidents  were  reported. 

d.  In  the  United  States  annually  about  35,000  persons 
are  killed  by  industrial  accidents,  and  about  500,000 
are  seriously  injured. 

(0)  We  send  to  the  hospital  or  graveyard  one 
worker  every  minute  of  the  year  (Reeve). 

e.  Social  cost :  men  and  women  in  the  prime  of  their 
lives,  in  the  height  of  the  productive  capacity  are 
partially  or  wholly  destroyed. 

f.  The  compensation  is  inadequate  in  perhaps  80%  of 
the  cases. 

(a)  "Bright  hopes  may  be  blasted,  and  happy 
families  dragged  to  the  lowest  depths  of  shame 
and  misery,  while  bench  and  bar  quibble  for 
years  over  puerile  questions  of  legal  responsi- 
bility." 

(5)   It  is  because  accidents  are  so  cheap,  that  they  are  so 
numerous. 

a.  The  employer  is  largely  exempt  from  liability,  and  he 
permits  the  continuance  of  conditions  which  create 
accidents. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Chs.  XI,  XII. 
Campbell,    Industrial   Accidents    and    Their    Compensation, 

Ch.  I. 

Oliver,  Diseases  of  Occupation,  Ch.  I. 
Oliver,  Dangerous  Trades,  Ch.  I. 

SECTION  45.    UNEMPLOYMENT. 

(1)   Unemployment    is    involuntary    idleness    during    normal 
work  time. 


92  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  According  to  N.  Y.  Department  of  Labor,  about  15% 
of  the  organized  workers  of  that  state  are  constantly 
unemployed. 

b.  U.  S.  Census  estimates  that  about  22%  of  the  workers 
of  the  country  are  unemployed  for  a  part  of  the  year. 

c.  Carlyle:   "Perhaps   the   saddest  sight  that   fortune's 
inequality  exhibits — the  man  who  is  willing  to  work, 
and  can't  find  it." 

(2)  The  principal  personal  causes  of  unemployment  are  sick- 
ness and  disability  of  various  sorts. 

a.  These  causes  lead  to  a  study  of  the  "unemployables." 

b.  The  "unemployables" — three  classes — those  physically 
or  mentally  wholly  unable  to  work,  those  who  lack 
efficiency  in  their  work,  those  too  "lazy"  to  work. 

(3)  Industrial  causes  of  unemployment  throw  efficient  work- 
men into   forced  idleness,  by  circumstances  entirely  un- 
connected with  their  personality. 

a.  The  "disemployed"  are  out  of  work,  not  because  they 
are  unable  to  work,  but  because  there  is  no  work 
for  them  to  do. 

b.  Seasonal   trades    are   common,    and   they    inevitably 
mean  unemployment. 

(a)  Railroad  construction  work  is  suspended  dur- 
ing the  extreme  cold  months,  likewise  building 
trades,  etc. 

(b)  Unemployment    is    less    frequent    in    summer 
than  in  winter  (except  in  coal  mines,  theaters, 
clothing  trades). 

(c)  The  average  miner  can   work   from  year  to 
year,  about  two-thirds  of  the  time. 

c.  Industrial  crises  and  labor  troubles   increase  unem- 
ployment. 

(a)  Many  thousands  of  men  (strikers)  are  an- 
nually forced  out  of  work  because  they  feel  so 
strongly  their  class  responsibility  that  they 
join  in  an  action  of  which  they  disapprove. 

(4)  The  unemployed  leads  an  irregular  life. 

a.  The  result  is  usually  some  form  of  dissipation. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  93 

b.  The  unemployed  tends  to  lose  one  of  his  best  char- 
acteristics as  an  efficient  worker, — methodical  regu- 
larity. 

c.  At  the  end  of  the  period  of  unemployment,  the  aver- 
age man  is  far  less  efficient  and  capable  than  at  the 
beginning  of  his  period  of  unemployment. 

d.  Increases    need    for    charity, — in   two-thirds   of    the 
families  who  apply  for  charity  in  industrially  normal 
times,  one  or  more  wage-earners  are  unemployed  at 
the  time. 

e.  The  irregular  life  of  the  father  communicates  itself 
to  the  children. 

/.  The  lack  of  food  resulting  from  a  lack  of  income 

means  malnutrition  for  the  whole  family. 
g.  The  individual  degenerates,  the   family  suffers,  so- 
ciety pays  the  cost, — in  more  philanthropy  and  taxes 
or  by  being  deprived  of  the  services  of  its  idle  work- 
men. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  XIV. 
Devine,  Misery  and  its  Causes,  Ch.  III. 
Webb,  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Chs.  V,  VI. 
Reports,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor. 

SECTION  46.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  SOCIAL  IM- 
PORTANCE OF  TRANSPORTATION. 

(1)  As  means  of  travel  and  for  conveyance  of  goods,  water- 
ways and  watercraft  have  held  the  largest  place  in  history. 

a.  Sea  and  river  were  gifts  of  nature ;  land  roads,  the 
laborious  creation  of  man. 

b.  Great  rivers  of  Central  Europe  early  became  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  communication. 

(2)  First  aids  to  land  locomotion  were  primitive  forms  of  foot- 
gear ;  first  coaches  were  backs  of  savage  mothers ;  first 
landways  were  footpaths  of  wild  animals. 

a.  Human  footpaths  along  rivers  developed,  widened 
as  bridle-paths  for  horse-back  riding,  later  widened 
further  into  wagon-roads. 


94  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  In  France  great  attention  was  first  given  to  con- 
struction of  landways  (on  the  basis  of  old  Roman 
roads)  ;  great  highroads  of  France  have  been  admira- 
tion of  travelers  for  more  than  200  years. 

(3)  In  United  States,  "turnpike  period"  extends  from  1790 
to  1816. 

a.  From  construction  of  first  turnpike  to  steam  naviga- 
tion upon  Ohio  river. 

(4)  "River  and  canal  period,"  marked  by  introduction  of  steam 
travel  on  the  Hudson  (1807)  and  on  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi (1808-1817)  ;  by  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825. 

a.  First  railroad,  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  opened  in  1830; 
from  1830  to  1840  many  short  lines  built. 

(5)  In  next  period,  1840  to  1870,  railroads  supplanted  water- 
ways and  process  of  linear  consolidation  began. 

a.  In  1853,  ten  short,  independent  lines  between  Albany 
and  Buffalo  were  united  in  the  New  York  Central. 

b.  In  1869,  first  transcontinental  line,  the  Union  Pacific, 
was  completed. 

(6)  Period  from   1870  to   1890  produced  three  striking  de- 
velopments. 

a.  A  period  of  feverish  expansion;  railway  mileage  in- 
creased from  52,000  to  160,000  miles. 

b.  Completion  of  several  through  routes  from  Atlantic 
to  Chicago  brought  a  period  of  destructive  competi- 
tion. 

c.  Double   reaction — railways   sought  to   restrain   com- 
petition by  "agreements"  and  people  sought  to  pro- 
tect themselves  through  legislation  and  creation  of 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

(7)  Since    1890 — a    period    of    unprecedented    consolidation 
among  railroads ;  "community  of  interests"  system  in  con- 
trol. 

a.  Mileage,  1913,  about  245,000  miles;  employ  about  1,- 
000,000  men ;  unparalleled  loss  of  life  on  railroads. 

(8)  Transportation  includes  transmission  of  ideas,  etc. 

a.  Modern  postal  system  introduced  in  England  by 
Rowland  Hill's  four  reforms  in  1840;  uniformity  of 
rate,  penny  postage,  prepayment,  the  use  of  stamps. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  95 

b.  Includes  telegraph,   1844;  cable  across  the  Atlantic 

1866;  telephone,  1876;  wireless  telegraph,  1901. 
(9)   Transportation  makes  our  social  order  possible;  present 
society  could  not  exist  without  the  services  of  public  car- 
riers. 

a.  Business  as  we  know  it  to-day  would  be  impossible. 

b.  Neither  could  governments  maintain  order,  enforce 
laws,  and  provide  in  hundreds  of  ways  for  the  com- 
mon welfare. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Johnson,  Elements  of  Transportation,  Ch.  I.,  if. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXXIII. 
Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  Chs.  LX,  LXI. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXVII. 
McPherson,  Transportation  in  Europe,  Chs.  II,  III,  X. 
Cooley,  Social  Organization,  Pt.  II. 

SECTION  47.     MONEY :   THE   SOCIAL   FUNCTION   OF 
EXCHANGE. 

(1)   Money — a  commodity  which  mankind  voluntarily  accepts 
in  exchange  for  all  other  commodities  and  services. 

a.  Earliest   exchanges   were  by   barter — each  man   ex- 
changed goods  which  had  little  utility  to  him  for  other 
goods  which  had  more. 

b.  Some  commodities  were  almost  invariably  in  demand 
and  were  acceptable  to  nearly  all  persons. 

(a)   Hence  furs,  cattle,  wampum,  etc.,  were  used 
as  universally  desirable  commodities. 

(b)  Latin  word,  pecunia,  from  pecus,  a  herd  of 
cattle  or  sheep. 

(c)  Baser  metals,  copper,  iron,  zinc,  and  precious 
metals,   gold   and  silver,  have   served  as  ac- 
ceptable commodities  in  exchange. 

c.  Predominance  of  gold  and  silver  over  baser  metals 
and  other  articles  as  exchange  media  is  due  to  fol- 
lowing reasons : 

(a)  Their  beauty  has  made  them  universally  de- 
sired for  purposes  of  ornamentation. 


96  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(b)  Difficult  to  procure  and  have  high  exchange 
value — small    amounts    of    them    can    be    ex- 
changed   for    large    amounts    of    most    other 
goods. 

(c)  Highly  divisible;  can  be  converted  easily  into 
convenient  coins. 

(d)  Have  been  relatively  uniform  in  value;  and 
are  so  today  the  world  over. 

d.  While  metallic  money  is  a  great  step  beyond  barter, 
it  has  disadvantages :  bulky,  clumsy  to  handle,  easily 
lost. 

(a)  Hence  an  advanced  form  of  money — paper 
money,  which  is  more  easily  transported,  less 
bulky,  more  readily  transferred  from  indi- 
vidual to  individual. 

(2)  Civilized  communities  make  use  of  another  instrument  of 
exchange  known  as  credit. 

a.  Many  commercial  transactions  are  now  carried  on 
without  the  use  of  money  at  all. 

(a)  But  in  a  primitive  community,  because  of  the 
uncertainty  of  the  future,  one  cannot  buy 
goods  without  paying  for  them  directly. 

b.  In  modern  business,  four  kinds  of  credit:     (a)  book 
credit,  (b)  notes,  (c)  checks,  drafts,  and  bills  of  ex- 
change,   (d)    banking  operations — discount,   deposit, 
issue. 

c.  Credit  is  one  of  the  most  effective  instruments  in  the 
hands  of  modern  society. 

d.  Yet  it  leads  to  extravagant  living,  stock  watering, 
"high  finance"  and  allows  much  speculation. 

e.  But  since  credit  is  so  essential  to  modern  progress, 
stringent  regulations  should  be  made  and  enforced  to 

prevent  its  employment  in  "high  finance"  and  to  in- 
sure its  integrity. 

(3)  Money,  a  simple  and  effective  instrument  of  exchange  is 
as  necessary  to  the  progress  of  mankind  as  are  the  im- 
provements in  the  process  of  production  itself. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  97 

Suggested  Readings : 

White,  Money  and  Banking,  Chs.  I,  II. 
Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXVIII. 
Bullock,  Introduction  to  Economics,  Chs.  VIII,  IX,  X. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  II,  Ch.  IX. 
Bullock,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Chs.  XII,  XIV. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXVIII. 

SECTION  48.    THE  SOCIAL  MEANING  OF  INSURANCE. 

( 1 )  Insurance,  a  device  to  remove  the  economic  consequence  of 
uncertainty. 

a.  Uncertainty,  a  disadvantage  which  every  prudent  man 
desires  as  far  as  possible  to  eliminate — can  be  over- 
come in  three  ways. 

(a)  By  avoidance,  i.  e.,  by  joining  to  the  trans- 
action in  question  another  which  counterbal- 
ances  it — as   in   ordinary   "covering  transac- 
tions" of  the  cotton  or  wheat  futures. 

(b)  By  preventing  or  greatly  reducing  degree  of 
risk — can  make  a  house  absolutely  fire-proof. 

(c)  By  facing  and  assuming  the  risk  but  reducing 
it  by  combining  one's  own  risk  with  that  of 
others  in  a  group. 

(2)  Beginnings  of  insurance  are  to  be  found  in  three  entirely 
distinct  sources. 

a.  In  primitive  mutual  help — in  earliest  Teutonic  Frith- 
gilds  there  was  mutual  responsibility  for  loss  by  fire, 
theft. 

b.  In  the  classic  bottomry  loans — first  business  insurance 
in   connection   with   only   kind   of   enterprise   where 
capital    was    employed    then    on    large    scale,    i.    e., 
over-sea  trading. 

(a)  Loan  on  a  vessel  to  be  repaid  with  interest  pro- 
viding ships  were  not  lost  or  did  not  fall  into 
hands  of  pirates. 

c.  In  Mediaeval  system  of  rent  charges. 

(3)  Most  important  forms  of  modern  insurance  are  five: 


98  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Marine  insurance — centers  in  England. 

(a)  Began  with  Lloyd's  Coffee  House  as  a  center 
— by  1750  virtually  all  marine  insurance  was 
done  at  "Lloyd's." 

b.  Fire   insurance — received    its    impetus    from    "Great 
Fire,"  London,  1666. 

c.  Life  insurance — because  of  vicissitudes  and  magni- 
tude of  modern  business  life  in  the  United  States, 
American   life   insurance   companies   have   far  tran- 
scended all  others  in  importance. 

(a)  Includes  general  health  and  general  accident 
insurance. 

d.  Employers'    Liability    Insurance — intended    to    dis- 
tribute the  liability  of  employers  for  industrial  acci- 
dents. 

e.  Industrial   insurance — because   of   individualism   and 
"personal  liberty,"  the  United  States  is  many  years 
behind  leading  European  nations. 

(4)  Leading  forms  of  industrial  insurance  are :  accident,  sick- 
ness, old  age. 

a.  Accident  insurance — ordinarily  risks  of  injury  in  em- 
ployment are  accepted  by  workmen  with  virtually  no 
attention. 

(a)  Hence  the  great  German  system  of  compelling 
employers  to  form  insurance  companies  for 
benefit  of  workmen. 

b.  Insurance  against  sickness — fairly  adequate  data  now 
available  as  to  frequency  of  illness  in  modern  com- 
munities. 

(a)  Fraternal    societies    of   England   are   perhaps 
leaders  in  this  work  but  they  reach  a  class 
comparatively  prosperous. 

(b)  Hence  the  German  compulsory  system  for  sick 
insurance. 

c.  Old  age  insurance — Germany,  e.  g,,  provides  old  age 
pensions  for  her  workingmen  by  public  authority. 

(5)  United  States  is  now  facing  the  problem  of  getting  the 
whole  movement  for  workingmen's  insurance  under  suc- 
cessful headway. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  99 

Suggested  Readings : 

Gephart,  Principles  of  Insurance,  Chs.  I,  XI,  XII. 
Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  LVIII. 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  XXXIV. 
Webb,  S.  and  B.,  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Ch.  VII. 

SECTION  49.     THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  RECENT  SO- 
CIALISTIC MOVEMENTS. 

(1)  Socialistic  ideas  explained. 

a.  Socialism  contemplates  expansion  of  business  func- 
tions of  government  until  the  more  important  forms 
of  business  are  absorbed. 

b.  Private  property  in  profit-producing  capital  and  rent- 
producing  land  is  to  be  abolished. 

c.  Not  war  upon  capital,  but  upon  private  capitalist. 

d.  Seeks  establishment  of  industrial  democracy  through 
instrumentality  of  the  State. 

(2)  In  one  sense  there  is  no  one  general  type  of  socialism,  but 
many  varieties. 

a.  Modern  socialism  may  be  dated  from  William  God- 
win's "Inquiry  concerning  Political  Justice"  in  1793. 

b.  Utopian  socialists,  e.  g.,  Robt.  Owen's  colony  at  New 
Harmony,  Indiana. 

c.  Marxian  socialists — call  themselves  scientific  as  dis- 
tinguished from  idealistic  writers. 

(a)  Hold  labor  theory  of  value,  economic  inter- 
pretation of  history,  doctrine  of  class  struggle 
whereby  the  capitalist  class  will  be  overthrown. 

d.  Fabian  socialists — disproved  both  Utopian  settlements 
and  philosophy  of  Marx. 

(a)  Aim  to  spread  socialistic  ideas  by  dissemina- 
tion of  knowledge,  rather  than  by  organized 
political  movement. 

(b)  Membership    largely    from    educated    middle 
class— the  Webbs. 

e.  Christian  Socialists — advocate  voluntary  co-operation 
and  elevation  of  workmen,  on  ground  that  this  is  re- 
quired by  teachings  of  the  Christian  religion. 


100         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

/.  State  socialism — used  in  Germany  to  mean  those  who 
favor  extension  of  economic  functions  of  government 
without  any  great  change  in  existing  class  relations. 

(3)  Strength  of  socialism. 

a.  Found  in  its  plea  for  a  scientific  organization  of  the 
productive  forces  of  society. 

b.  In  its  plea  for  a  just  distribution  of  annual  social 
income. 

(4)  Weakness  of  socialism. 

a.  Underestimates  the  efficiency  of  present  system's  pre- 
mium on  individual  energy  and  thrift. 

b.  Compulsory  co-operation   incompatible   with   present 
human  nature. 

c.  Overlooks  importance  of  the  need  of  checking  public 
enterprise  by  private. 

d.  Neglects  the  fact  that  a  right  attitude  toward  gov- 
ernment is  more  important  than  any  given  form  of 
government. 

(5)  Services  of  socialism. 

a.  Persistently  calls  attention  to  needed  social  reforms. 

b.  Forces  the  more  fortunate  classes  to  reflect  on  the 
condition  of  the  less  fortunate. 

c.  Assists  in  forming  habits  of  looking  at  all  questions 
from  the  standpoint  of  public  welfare  and  not  merely 
of  private  gain. 

d.  Secures  checks  on  anti-social  operations  of  soulless 
big  business. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Cross,  Essentials  of  Socialism,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Hillquit,  History  of  Socialism,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Spargo,  Applied  Socialism,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Ellis,  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene,  Ch.  XII. 

Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  Chs.  LXIV,  LXV. 

Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXX. 

SECTION  50.     THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    ECONOMIC 
THOUGHT. 

(1)   Early  economic  ideas. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  *  *101 

a.  Plato's  acceptance    and    Aristotle's  defense  of  slave 
labor. 

b.  Economic    ideas    of    Romans    borrowed    from    the 
Greeks. 

c.  Christianity  emphasized  the  honorableness  of  toil  and 
equality  of  men  before  God. 

d.  Prohibition  of  usury   (interest)    by    the    Mediaeval 
Church. 

(2)  Economic  thought  in  modern  times. 

a.  Mercantilism — synonymous  with  governmental  inter- 
ference. 

b.  Supplanted    by    the    physiocratic    doctrine    and    the 
theory  of  laissez-faire  or  non-interference  with  pri- 
vate enterprise  by  the  government. 

c.  Adam  Smith's  emphasis  on  doctrines  of  free  trade, 
non-interference,  natural  laws — all  stated  guardedly. 

d.  German  school's  emphasis  on  relativity  of  economic 
policies. 

e.  Austrian    writers'    contribution    of    marginal  utility 
theory  of  value. 

/.  Socialism's  thorough  protest  against  laissez  faire  and 
private  ownership  of  private  property. 

g.  Sociology's  insistence  upon  a  broad  social  point  of 
view  as  against  the  narrow  view  of  the  classical 
economists. 

(3)  Economic  considerations  now  being  stated  in  sociological 
terms. 

a.  Wealth  and  property  are  subordinate  in  importance 
to  persons. 

b.  Wealth  should  depend  on  activity. 

c.  Public  service  should  go  along  with  great  wealth. 

d.  Change  from  individual  to  collective  methods  of  in- 
dustry and  the  urgent  need  of  a  corresponding  change 
from  individual  to  collective  types  of  morality. 

e.  To  meet  impersonal  agencies,  society  must  require 
greater  publicity  and  express    its    moral   standards 
more  adequately  in  law. 

/.  Every  normal  member  of  society  should  share  in  its 
wealth  and  in  values  made  possible  by  it. 


102        ' University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(4)   Two  great  unsettled  economic  problems. 

a.  Individualism  versus  public  agency  and  control. 

b.  Methods  of  securing  a  just  distribution  of  wealth. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXXVI. 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Ch.  XXXIII. 

Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  Ch.  VIII. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  XII. 

Fisher,   Elementary   Principles   of   Economics,   Chs.    XXV, 

XXVI. 

Fetter,  Source  Book  in  Economics,  Ch.  VI. 
Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  VI. 
Adams    and    Sumner,    Labor    Problems.    Macm. :    1908. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. :  1905. 
Bogart,    E.    L.,   Economic   History   of   the   United    States, 

Longmans:   1912. 

Bullock,  C.  J.,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Ginn:  1907. 
Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics,  Macm. :  1912. 
Butterfield,  K.  L.,  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress,  Univ.  of 

Chicago  Pr. :  1907. 

Carver,  T.  N.,  Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  Ginn:  1911. 
Cooley,  C.  'H.,  Social  Organization,  Scribner's :  1909. 
Cross,  L,  Essentials  of  Socialism,  Macm. :  1912. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett:  1909. 
Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Holt:  1908. 
Ellis,  H.,  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene,  Houghton,  Mifflin: 

1912. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Macm.:  1908. 
Fairbanks,  A.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner's:  1910. 
Fetter,  F.  A.,  Source-book  in  Economics,  Century:  1912. 
Fisher,  L,  Principles  of  Economics,  Macm. :  1913. 
Gephart,  W.  F.,  Principles  of  Insurance,  Macm.:  1911. 
Hillquit,   M.,   History   of   Socialism   in   the   United   States, 

Funk  and  Wagnalls  :  1910. 
Hobson,  J.  A.,  Evolution  of  Modern  Capitalism,  Scribner's: 

1904. 

Johnson,  E.  R.,  Elements  of  Transportation,  Appleton :  1909, 
McPherson,  L.  G.,  Transportation  in  Europe,  Holt:  1910. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  103 

Seligman,  E.  R.  A.,  Principles  of  Economics,  Longmans: 
1907. 

Spargo,  J.,  Applied  Socialism,  Huebsch :   1912. 

Starr,  F.,  Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress,  Chaut. : 
190L 

Taussig,  F.  W.,  Principles  of  Economics,  Macm. :  1911. 

Toynbee,  A.,  The  Industrial  Revolution,  Humboldt:  1884. 

Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  Concentration  and  Control,  Macm. :  1912. 

Webb,  Sidney  and  Beatrice,  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Long- 
mans: 1911. 

White,  H.,  Money  and  Banking,  Ginn:  1910. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  VI. 

1.  Industrial  Accidents  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Industrial  Insurance  in  Germany. 

3.  History  of  Child  Labor  in  the  United  States. 

4.  Child  Labor  in  Your  Own  City. 

5.  The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Slavery  as  a  Social  Institution. 

6.  A  Comparative  Study  of  Mercantilism  and  Laissez  Faire 
in  Relation  to  Social  Progress. 

7.  Analysis  of  Leading  Occupations  in  your  city  according 
to  the  Social  Prestige  attached  to  them. 

8.  Description  and  Value  of  Five  most  Important  Inven- 
tions. 

9.  Life  and  Work  of  Samuel  Gompers. 

10.  Argument    for    (or   against)    a    Compulsory   Minimum 
Wage. 

11.  The  I.  W.  W. 

12.  Comparison   of   Knights   of   Labor   with  the   American 
Federation  of  Labor. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

POLITICAL  AND  LEGAL  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  51.    THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  STATE. 

(1)  The  need  of  protection  against  one's  fellow-beings. 

a.  An  animal  must  have  some  means  of  defense — either 
strength  to  fight  or  speed  to  run  away. 

b.  Man  lives  under  conditions  where  neither  his  speed 
nor  his  strength  of  arm  can  protect  him  from  his 
foes. 

(a)  He  must  rely  on  some  higher  means  of  de- 
fense or  perish. 

(2)  Man  has   found  protection  from  his  fellows  by  uniting 
with  his  fellows. 

a.  For  man  protection  means  defensive  strength. 

b.  Many  savage  tribes  unite  only  in  the  presence  of  a 
common  danger. 

c.  Fear  is  always  a  potent  force  in  developing   func- 
tional bonds  of  union. 

d.  Need  of  defensive  strength  leads  to  union,  to  the 
beginnings  of  a  common  life  that  may  become  po- 
litical. 

(3)  The  early  state  meets  this  vital  need. 

a.  The  crude  political  body  formed  as  a  protection  for 
life  is  a  most  important  social  unit  and  is  the  germ 
of  the  modern  state. 

b.  Under  the  protection  of  its  growing  power,  we  find 
the  beginnings  of  true  economic  life  and  rapid  social 
advance. 

c.  Here  are  found  the  beginnings  of  private  property — 
men   agree   to   respect   certain  possessions   of  their 
neighbors. 

d.  In  this  group  the  individual  finds  protection. 

105 


106         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  From   the    "outside" — hence   he   has   a   little 
world  where  ordinarily  he  can  live  at  peace — 
such  peace  is  the  first  condition  of  progress. 

(b)  From  the   "within" — leads  to  recognition  of 
such    individual    rights    and    development   of 
such  restraining  laws  as  best  conduce  to  the 
unity  and  strength  of  the  whole  body. 

(4)  Need  of  protection  in  developed  civilization. 

a.  Here  the  function  of  protection  against  the  outside 
world  is  vastly  increased. 

(a)  Debt  of  civilization  to  the  strength  of  the 
state  takes  form  in  the  sentiment  of  patriot- 
ism— the  strength  of  this  sentiment  we  know 
only  when  some  danger  impends. 

b.  At  the  same  time,  the  state  continues  to  protect  a 
man  from  his  neighbors. 

(a)  It  is  this  need  of  protection  which  keeps  in 
motion    the    whole    apparatus    of    the    law- 
legislative,  judicial,  and  administrative. 

(b)  More  to  be  protected  today — in  primitive  so- 
ciety,  it   is   a   day's  work   only  that  may  be 
stolen;  today  it  is  the  accumulations  of  gen- 
erations that  are  to  be  protected  by  law. 

(5)  The  whole  range  of  political  activity  goes  back   for  its 
fundamental  stimulus  to  the  simple  need  of  protection. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Ch.  I. 
Leacock,  Elements  of  Political  Science,  Chs.  II,  III. 
Garner,  Introduction  to  Political  Science,  Ch.  IV. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  123-37. 

SECTION  52.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  STATE. 

(1)   The  earliest  expression  of  political  life. 

a.  A  temporary  union  of  men  having  some  interests  in 
common — for  purposes  of  defense. 

b.  A  sort  of  temporary  oligarchy  based  on  respect  for 
those    whose   personal   prowess    enabled   the   group 
to  meet  attack  successfully. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  107 

c.  Had  fundamental  elements  of  modern  state. 

(a)  Authority  or  sovereignty  of  the  leader. 

(b)  A   notion   of   law — in  the   commands   of  the 
chief  and  in  the  customs  of  war  and  hunting. 

(c)  A   common   unity   since   all   members   of   the 
group  were  combined  for  a  general  purpose. 

(2)  The  tribal  state — developed  on  the  basis  of  blood  rela- 
tionship. 

a.  Some  type  of  family  life   formed  the  basis   of  the 
tribal  state. 

b.  This  unit,  held  together  by  ties  of  blood,  by  a  com- 
mon authority,  by  a  common  religion,  was  the  stable 
element  out  of  which  states  were  constructed. 

c.  Common   descent  of  members  from  a  fictitious  an- 
cestor was  postulated;  king  was  invested  with  ab- 
solute authority  of  a  father. 

d.  Religion,  especially  in  the  form  of  ancestor-worship 
performed  important  service  in  developing  the  habit 
of  obedience. 

(a)   By  enforcing  with  supernatural  sanctions  all 
the  customs  of  the  past. 

(3)  The  city-state  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  an  outgrowth 
of  the  tribal  state. 

a.  Ties  of  blood  are  still  strong  and  a  state  religion  is 
still  a  bond  of  political  union. 

b.  Gradually  assumed  more  elaborate  administration  of 
justice  through  protection  of  weaker  members. 

c.  Had  greater  regularity  and  permanence  than  tribal 
state. 

(4)  The  feudal  state — in  which  personal  allegiance  takes  pre- 
cedence over  the  other  factors  which  bind  society  together. 

a.  No  longer  a  large  family,  but  rather  an  army;  gov- 
ernment is  a  military  institution. 

b.  Its  very  framework  consists  of  an  elaborate  system 
of  rights  and  duties. 

c.  Its  form  is  peculiar;  in  theory,  king  owns  the  whole 
state  and  parcels  it  out  to  his  nobles  who  in  turn 
distribute  it  among  their  subordinates. 


108         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

d.  Men  do  not  live  for  the  state,  but  are  called  on  to 
live  for  the  king  in  whom  the  state  is  concentrated 

(5)  The  absolute  monarchy — an  overgrown  feudal  state. 

a.  For  many  centuries,  monarchs  continued  to  treat  the 
state  as  their  private  property. 

b.  Concessions  and  limitations  of  their  authority  always 
secured    with    difficulty    and    at    times    not    without 
bloodshed. 

(6)  The  constitutional  monarchy  and  the  democracy. 

a.  Ruler  is  the  minister  of  the  people,  not  a  superior 
clothed  with  divine  rights. 

b.  Parliament  or  congress  is  forced  to  register  the  will 
of  the   people,   or  the   people   change   its   character 
until  it  becomes  representative. 

c.  By  means  of  representatives  chosen  by  the  people, 
the  government  is  brought  into  closest  relations  with 
the  people. 

d.  The  sovereignty  of  the  people  is  the  real  governing 
power. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Ashley,  American  Federal  State,  Ch.  I. 

Dealey,  Development  of  the  State,  Ch.  II. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  123-37. 

Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XXI. 

Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Chs.  IV-VII. 

SECTION  53.    THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  MOD- 
ERN STATE. 

(1)  A  state  is  a  group  exercising  authority  over  its  members 
and  having  final  authority  within  a  given  territory ;  its 
general  forms  of  activity  may  be  classified  as  three-fold : 

a.  Activity  with  reference  to  other  states,  guaranteeing 
protection  from  external  attack  or  interference. 

b.  Activity  with  reference  to  its  citizens,  guaranteeing 
them  security  and  liberty. 

c.  Activity  in  modifying  other  factors  in  group  progress. 

(2)  Diplomatic  and  military  activity — help  to  preserve  a  dis- 
tinct national  life. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  109 

a.  First  necessity  of  a  state  is  the  power  to  assert  a 
place  for  itself  among  its  neighbors. 

(3)  The  state  defends  the  citizen  in  his  needs  and  punishes 
crime. 

a.  Enforces  contracts  when  properly  made ;  affords  dam- 
ages for  accidents. 

b.  Provides  for  formation  of  corporate  bodies  for  busi- 
ness purposes. 

c.  May  even  lend  its  stamp  as  a  guarantee  of  the  good 
quality  of  certain  commodities — thus  protecting  in- 
dividuals against  fraud. 

d.  Punishment  of  crime  clearly  belongs  to  the  state  for 
it  requires  use  of  an  authority  which  reaches  to  all 
parts  of  society. 

(a)  Hence  the  state  now  provides  machinery  for 
determining   justice   and   punishing  the   con- 
victed. 

(b)  Also  establishes  an  elaborate  police  system  to 
secure  the  criminal;  and  in  the  person  of  its 
own  attorneys,  conducts  the  case  against  him. 

(4)  The  state  in  relation  to  other  modes  of  social  activity. 

a.  If    present    tendency    toward    socialistic    measures 
should   continue,    direct   care    for   welfare  -of    each 
citizen  would  come  to  be  most  important  sphere  of 
state  activity. 

b.  State  never  has  been  inventor  of  economic   forms, 
but  has  preserved  and  given  definitetiess  to  many  of 
them,  e.  g., 

(a)  Took  up  the  coinage  of  money  and  assumed 
charge  of  banking  institutions  and  of  com- 
merce. 

(b)  Protects  inventors  by  giving  them  patents. 

(c)  Undertakes  transmission  of  mail-matter  and 
keeps  the   roadways,  bridges,  in  order. 

(d)  Has  become  employer  of  labor  in  numerous 
forms  of  industry. 

(e)  Limits   of   direct   state   activity   in   economic 
sphere — where   final   authority   and   universal 


110         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

rules  are  more  advantageous  than  freedom  of 
individual  initiative,  state  should  assume  con- 
trol. 

c.  The    state   and   moral   life — state   needs   citizens    of 
strong  moral  character,  but  moral  character  is  not 
to  be  created  by  force. 

(a)  State  removes  some  temptations  to  vice — by 
preventing  the  circulation  of  impure  literature, 
limiting  sale  of  intoxicants,  etc. 

d.  The  state  and  the  church, — not  one  any  longer,  but 
the  relations  between  the  two  not  settled. 

(a)  Intervention  of  state  in  religion  tends  to  make 
religion  perfunctory. 

(b)  But  if  religious  beliefs  are  true,  then  religious 
side  of  life  cannot  be  entirely  removed  from 
the.  proper  sphere  of  government. 

Suggested  Readings: 
Wilson,  The  State,  612-28. 

Garner,  Introduction  to  Political  Science,  311-29. 
Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Ch.  XXXII. 
Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 
Ashley,  American  Federal  State,  Ch.  XIX. 
Dealey,  Development  of  the  State,  Ch.  V. 

SECTION    54.    THE    COST    OF    MAINTAINING    THE 
STATE :    TAXATION. 

(1)   Governmental  budgets  amount  to  a  tenth  part  of  all  the 
wealth  produced. 

a.  What  is  the  proper  proportion  between  public  ex- 
penditures and  total  income  of  society? 

(a)  Total  taxation  of  real  property  in  United 
States,  frequently  runs  as  high  as  20%  of  the 
net  profits. 

b.  Governmental    expenditures   are   rapidly   increasing. 

(a)  Due  first  to  fact  of  increasing  public  co-opera- 
tion. 

(b)  Second,  unhappily,  to  militarism. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  Ill 

c.  The  national  government  is  obliged  to  spend  large 
sums  of  money  for  purposes  of  protection  and  main- 
tenance ;  the  state  and  local  governments  devote  their 
incomes  largely  to  the  advancement  of  education, 
social  improvements,  etc. 

(a)  Increased  taxation  may  therefore  mean 
greater  social  welfare. 

(2)  A  government  needs  two  classes  of  revenues,  temporary 
and  permanent. 

a.  Extraordinary    expenditures    such    as    those   due   to 
war,    floods,    and   public    investments    such    as    rail- 
ways, city  gas  works,  must  be  met  by  loans. 

(a)  Function  of  loans — distribution  of  unavoid- 
able losses  so  that  industry  is  as  little  dis- 
turbed as  possible ;  relieving  present  generation 
from  paying  for  benefits  to  be  partly  enjoyed 
by  future  generations. 

b.  Ordinary  expenditures  such  as  occur  with  regularity 
must  be  met  by  taxation. 

(3)  According  to  what  principle  should  taxes  be  apportioned 
throughout  the  community? 

a.  Not  according  to  special  benefits  received. 

(a)  For  those  receiving  most  benefits,  the  poor 
and  needy,  would  be  taxed  most  heavily. 

b.  Taxes  should  be  laid  in  proportion  to  ability  to  pay. 

(a)  Those  enjoying  the  comforts  of  life,  the  rich 
and  well-to-do,  would  contribute  largely  to  the 
support  of  government. 

(4)  The  burden  of  taxation  may  be  shifted  from  one  person 
to  another. 

a.  In  case  of  tariff  duties,  importer  shifts  them  to  the 
consumer. 

(a)  If  the  consumer  decides  to  buy  the  domestic 
article,   he  finds   of  course  that  the   price   is 
correspondingly  increased. 

(b)  Therefore,  whether  he  buys  the  domestic  or 
imported  article,  the  burden  of  this  tax  falls 
on  the  consumer. 


112         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  The  great  burden  imposed  on  the  poor  by  means  of 
tariff  duties  and  excises  should  be  offset  by  forms  of 
direct  taxation  of  the  wealthier  classes. 

(a)  Inheritance  tax,  progressive  to   15%,   is   de- 
veloping rapidly  as  a  satisfactory  tax  and  as 
method  of  regulating  swollen  fortunes. 

(b)  An    income    tax    seems    a    relatively    simple 
method  of  bringing  about  a  more  just  appor- 
tionment. 

c.  The   general   property   tax,    intended   for   both   real 
estate    and   personal   property,    does   not   effectively 
reach  personal  property. 

(a)  Land  and  houses  cannot  be  hidden  but  per- 
sonal property  may  be  readily  concealed. 

(b)  Tax  on  personal  property  leads  to  deception 
and  has  gone  far  toward  making  perjury  re- 
spectable among  the  people. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Seligman,  The  Income  Tax,  Ch.  I,  ff. 
Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Chs.  XXXII  to  XXXV. 
Bullock,  Introduction  to  Economics,  Ch.  XVIII. 
Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics,  LXVI,  LXVII. 

SECTION    55.    LEGISLATION   AND   SOCIAL   ADJUST- 
MENT. 

(1)  In  a   small   community,   knowledge   of  a   maladjustment 
may  lead  at  once  to  its  elimination ;  in  a  large  commun- 
ity maladjustment  can  be  removed  only  by  concentrating 
public  opinion  in  the  form  of  legislation. 

(2)  "Where  population  is  densest,  wealth  greatest,  and  the 
machinery  of  production  and  exchange  most  highly  de- 
veloped, we  find  the  deepest  poverty,  the  sharpest  strug- 
gle   for    existence,    and    the    most    enforced    idleness."" 

(George.)* 
a.  Hence  the  need  for  legislation. 

(3)  The  limitations  of  legislative  remedies. 

a.  Must  be  preceded  by  the  development  of  a  wide- 
spread and  deep  feeling  of  social  responsibility- 
through  the  education  of  the  public  conscience. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  113 

b.  Some   maladjustments,    such   as   the   dependence   of 
women  and  the  decadence  of  the  home  can  not  be 
solved  by  legislation. 

(a)  But  only  through  a  strongly  developed  public 
opinion  and  an  intelligent  self-interest. 

c.  Legislation  is  necessarily  external  and  coercive. 

(a)  It  fails  oftentimes  to  change  the  habits  of  in- 
dividuals, and  very  generally  fails  to  change 
their  opinions. 

(4)  Legislation  should  be  based  on  expert  investigation  and 
analysis. 

a.  Legislatures   are   each  year  appointing  commissions 
to  investigate  housing,  sanitation,  etc. 

(a)  With  the  provision  that  the  commission  se- 
cure the  services  of  a  social  expert. 

(5)  The  necessity  for  legislative  uniformity. 

a.  The  manufacturers  in  the  states  having  a  high  stand- 
ard constantly  threaten  to  leave  and  go  to  the  state 
with  the  lower  standard. 

(a)  This  threat  is  a  powerful  weapon  in  a  legisla- 
tive committee. 

b.  In  the  Southern  States,  each  fears  that  an  effective 
child  labor  law  will  drive  the  cotton  manufacturing 
business  into  other  states  having  less  stringent  legis- 
lation. 

(a)  The  manufacturer  asserts  that  a  high  age 
standard,  by  raising  his  expense  of  produc- 
tion, will  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  com- 
pete in  the  open  market. 

c.  Massachusetts  passes  a  stringent  but  needed  vagrant 
law,  and  immediately,  the  "tramps"  in  that  state  de- 
part for  adjoining  states  where  laws  are  less  strict. 

d.  As  a  result  of  different  divorce  laws  in  the  different 
states,   certain   acts   are   "moral"   in   one   state   and 
grossly  immoral  in  the  adjoining  state. 

(6)  A  program, — investigation,  education,  legislation — which 
will  universalize  opportunity,   socialize  achievement,   and 
guarantee  adjustment. 


114         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  XVI. 

Beard,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Ch.  XXXII. 

Addams,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  VII. 

Kelley,  Some  Ethical  Gains  Through  Legislation,  Chs.  I,  II. 

SECTION  56.    THE  SOCIOLOGICAL  FOUNDATION  OF 
LAW. 

(1)  Law  is  the  organized  body  of  rules  enforced  by  the  state. 

a.  Ideas  of  justice  among  primitive  men  found  in  an 
elaborate  body  of  custom  to  which  absolute  validity 
is  assigned. 

(a)  Only  principle  of  growth  lies  in  power  of 
king  to  decide  new  cases  provided  he  follows 
established  rules  of  procedure. 

b.  With  higher  stages  of  civilization,  need  of  a  more 
extended  law  was  constantly  felt. 

(a)  This  need  was  largely  met  by  the  courts'? 
adjudication  of  particular  cases  continued  to 
be  the  source  of  large  additions  to  "law." 

c.  Today,   almost  all  law  has  its  source  in  legislative 
bodies,  founded  for  purpose  of  making  laws. 

(a)  But  the  real  foundation  of  law  is  in  the  will 
of  the  people  and  public  opinion. 

(2)  Foundations  of  the  science  of  law  must  be  laid  especially 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  organization,  de- 
velopment, and  functioning  of  human  society. 

a.  Legal  texts  and  codes  always  presuppose  some  theory 
of  society. 

(a)  Earliest  Roman  law  presupposed  the  religious 
view  of  social  organization  that  was  inherent 
in  ancestor-worship. 

(b)  Later  Roman  law  rested  on  assumption  that 
the  social  order  was  a  matter  of  "contract." 

(c)  Through  influence  of  church  during  Middle 
Ages,   conception   of   law   as   a   Divine   com- 
mand dominated. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  115 

(d)  Sociology  reveals  the  foundation  of  law,  i.  e., 
its  origin,  nature,  and  function  in  human  so- 
ciety. 

(3)  Law  is  one  of  the  chief  means  of  social  control  of  in- 
dividual conduct. 

a.  Social    restraint   becomes    increasingly   necessary   to 
carry  on  an  increasingly  complex  collective  life. 

b.  Coercive  character  of  law  springs  from  need  of  pre- 
scribing  individual   conduct   in   ways   of   social   ad- 
vantage. 

c.  Law  aims  to  maintain  the  minimum  of  conduct  neces- 
sary for  the  safety  of  society. 

d.  Civil  and  criminal  law  are  two  great  props  which 
sustain  social  order  in  any  nation. 

e.  Hence  weakness  of  criminal  law  in  United   States 
and  general  disrespect  for  law  are  grave  signs  of 
social  disintegration. 

(4)  Since  it  is  a  lawyer's  function  to  help  preserve  the  social 
order,  legal  profession  is  as  fundamentally  a  social  service  pro- 
fession   as   teaching   or   the   ministry. 

a.  If  social  view  of  law  is  right,  then  commercialized 
conception  of  the  profession,  of  having  for  sale  pri- 
marily personal  service  to  individuals  and  corpora- 
tions who  can  pay  for  it  is  false. 

b.  Legal   profession  must  become   social   servants   pri- 
marily rather  than  personal  servants  of  individuals 
and  corporations  if  the  nation  is  to  endure. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ellwood,  "The  Sociological  Foundations  of  Law,"  Green 

Bag,  Oct.  1910,  p.  576-81. 
Groat,  Attitude  of  American  Courts  in  Labor  Cases,  Ch. 

XXI. 

Parsons,  Legal  Doctrine  and  Social  Progress,  Chs.  I,  XII. 
Coleman,   Social   Ethics,   224-45. 
Ross,  Social  Control,  106-25. 


116         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

SECTION  57.    AMERICAN  LAWLESSNESS:  A  SOCIO- 
LOGICAL INQUIRY. 

( 1 )  Laws  are  not  enforced  in  the  United  States  as  in  England, 
for  example,  because  "like-mindedness"  is  largely  absent. 

a.  In  our  heterogeneous  population,  is  a  Babel  of  ton- 
gues, beliefs,  traditions,  standards,  intellectual  and 
emotional  characteristics. 

(2)  A  second  cause  of  lawlessness  is  found  in  connection  with 
"state's  rights." 

a.  What   does   "law"   mean  to   men   and   women   who 
marry  in  one  state,  obtain  a  divorce  in  another,  and 
form  new  alliance  in  a  third  ? 

b.  What  one  state  will  not  do  for  corporations,  another 
will. 

(3)  How  can  there  be  respect  for  law  as  law  when  there  is  so 
little  respect  for  so  many  men  who  are  sent  to  the  legis- 
latures to  create  laws? 

a.  Bad  and  crude  statutes,  omissions,  failures  are  almost 
always  found  in  the  average  legislature's  record. 

b.  Many  lawmakers  are  condemned  as  tools  of  selfish 
bosses,  and  representatives  of  privilege. 

(4)  Slowness  with  which  criminal  trials  are  expedited. 

a.  Took  thirteen  weeks  and  summoning  of  10,000  venire- 
men  at  cost  of  over  $40,000  to  secure  a  jury  in  Shea 
case. 

(a)   In   England,   scarcely  more  than  an  hour  is 
ever  taken  to  secure  a  jury. 

b.  In  Iroquois  case,  it  took  three  years  and  four  months 
to  bring  accused  to  trial — even  then  he  was  freed  on 
a  technicality. 

c.  Long  lapse  of  time  between  the  commission  of  an 
offense    and    the    trial    renders    conviction    difficult 
through  death  of  witnesses,  etc. 

(5)  Too  great  importance  given  to  technicalities. 

a.  Lawyers  who  have  doubtful  cases  are  known  to  try 
to  get  error  into  the  record,  to  secure  a  new  trial  if 
client  is  convicted. 

(6)  Too  much  latitude  of  appeal. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  117 

a.  "The  rendering  of  the  verdict  is  only  the  beginning 

of  a  trial  in  serious  criminal  cases." 
(7)   Changing  attitude  of  the  courts. 

a.  Less  blind  adherence  to  precedents  which  are  possibly 
many  years  antiquated. 

b.  Increasing  consideration  of  public  welfare  in  interpre- 
tation of  law  and  in  expedition  of  legal  procedure. 

Suggested  Readings: 

Yarros,  "American  Lawlessness :     A  Sociological  Inquiry," 

Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  July,  1912,  77-91. 
Garner,  "Criminal  Procedure  in  the  United  States,"  Amer. 

Rev.,  Jan.  1910,  49-63. 

Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  Ch.  XCVII. 
Eliot,  "Lawlessness,"  Putnam's,  Apr.  1909,  82-92. 
Wilson,  "Lawyer  and  the  Community,"  No.  Amer.  Rev.,  192 : 

604-22. 

SECTION  58.      INTERNATIONAL  LAW  AS  REGULAT- 
ING THE  CONDUCT  OF  STATES. 

(1)  International  law — the  rules  which  determine  the  conduct 
of  the  general  body  of  civilized  states  in  their  mutual 
dealings. 

a.  A  science — its  chief  business  is  to  find  out  by  obser- 
vation the  rules  actually  followed  in  their  mutual  in- 
tercourse. 

b.  Coexistence  of  states  renders  it  necessary  for  them 
to  pay  some  sort  of  attention  to  one  another. 

(a)  The  more  civilized  the  states,  the  more  inti- 
mate the  intercourse,  which  includes  commerce, 
scientific  discovery,  etc. 

c.  Generally  observed  by  states,  though  here  and  there 
some  of  its  commands  are  disregarded. 

(a)  Owing  to  absence  of  coersive  force  to  compel 
nations  to  obedience,  it  is  more  liable  to  be 
violated  than  is  the  law  of  the  land. 

d.  Applies  to  civilized  states  only,  though  it  is  not  con- 
fined to  Christian  states. 


118         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

e.  Regulates  the  conduct  of  states  in  their  mutual  deal- 
ings, hostile  as  well  as  pacific. 

(2)  The  first  period  in  the  world's  history  of  international  law 
extends  from  the  earliest  times  to  establishment  of  the 
universal  dominion  of  Rome. 

a.  Its  distinguishing  mark — states  as  such  possessed  no 
rights  and  were  subject  to  no  obligations. 

b.  Kinship  the  only  basis — nations  owed  duties  to  one 
another  if  they  were  of  the  same  race  but  not  other- 
wise. 

(3)  The  second  period  ends  with  the  Reformation. 

a.  The  relations  of  the  states  must  be  regulated  by  a 
common  superior;  for  a  long  time  the  Roman  em- 
peror was  such  a  superior. 

(a)  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  papacy 
claimed  universal  authority  during  the  Middle 
Ages. 

(4)  The  third  period — from  the  Reformation  to  the  present. 

a.  The  ruling  principle  is  that  states  are  units  in  a  great 
society,  the  members  of  which  have  mutual  rights  and 
obligations. 

b.  Grotius  the  great  agent  in  effecting  this  change  in 
ideas. 

c.  The  rudiments  of  an  international  legislature  in  the 
Hague  conventions. 

(5)  The  international  problem — development  of  national  states 
a  tremendous  step  forward,  but  it  cannot  be  the  final  step. 

a.  As  clans  were  intensely  jealous,  so  States  are  now 
arrayed  against  states  with  distrust  and  hatred. 

b.  A  great  social  waste  to  have  to  preserve  peace  by 
constantly  enlarging  armies  and  navies. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Lawrence,  Principles  of  International  Law,  Chs.  I,  II. 
Hall,  International  Law,  1-16. 
Ashley,  American  Federal  State,  Ch.   XXVIII. 
Willoughby,   Rights   and   Duties   of   American   Citizenship, 

Ch.  IV. 
Parsons,  Legal  Doctrine  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XL 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  119 

SECTION  59.      POLITICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  DAY. 

(1)  Distrust  of  government. 

a.  Government  even  in  most  democratic  countries  is  still 
thought  of  as  an  external  "ruler"  operating   from 
above. 

(a)  Rather  than  an  organ  by  which  people  asso- 
ciated in  pursuit  of  common  ends  can  most 
effectively  co-operate  for  realization  of  their 
own  aims. 

b.  Problem :  to  make  governmental  machinery  such  a 
prompt  and  flexible  organ  as  will  do  away  with  dis- 
trust of  government. 

(2)  Indifference  to  public  concerns. 

a.  Multiplication  of  private  interests  invites  neglect  of 
those  fundamental  general  concerns  of  government. 

b.  Politics  tends  to  become  a  trade  of  a  class  of  experts 
in  the  manipulation  of  their  fellows. 

c.  "Politics"  gets  bad  name  and  results  in  aloofness  from 
public  matters  of  those  best  fitted  to  participate. 

(3)  Corruption — indifference  of  the  many  leaves  management 
of  political  affairs  in  hands  of  a  few,  who  can  work  in 
more  or  less  irresponsible  secrecy. 

a.  That  a  "public  office  is  a  public  trust"  is  a  principle 
most  difficult  to  realize. 

b.  A  special  field  in  which  corruption  may  flourish — 
public  utility  companies. 

(a)  It  becomes  a  very  special  object  for  great  cor- 
porations to  control  agencies  of  legislation 
and  administration. 

(4)  Reforms  in  party  machinery — "machines"  of  political  par- 
ties with  their  hierarchal  gradation  of  bosses. 

a.  Bosses — men  in  touch  with  great  business  interests 
at  one  extreme  and  with  those  who  pander  to  the  vices 
of  the  community  at  the  other. 

(5)  Reforms  in  governmental  machinery. 

a.  Our  constitutions  defective,  because  they  cannot  fore- 
see direction  of  industrial  development,  increased 
complexity  of  social  life. 


120         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(6)   Constructive  social  legislation — not  a  question  of  magni- 
fying powers  of  the  State  against  individuals,  but  one  of 
making  individual  liberty  a  more  extensive  and  equitable 
matter. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  474-82. 

Ely,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Ch.  XXVI. 

Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  IV.,  Chs.  II,  VI. 

Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XXIII. 

Cooley,  Social  Organization,  Ch.  XXXV. 
Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  VII. 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  American  Federal  State,  Macm:  1902. 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Macm: 
1912. 

Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 

Bryce,  J.,  American  Commonwealth,  Macm:  1907. 

Bullock,  C.  J.,  Introduction  to  Economics,  Silver,  Burdett: 
1908. 

Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics,  Macm:  1912. 

Coleman,  J.  M.,  Social  Ethics,  Baker  and  Taylor:  1903. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  S'cribner's:  1909. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett:  1909. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Development  of  the  State,   Silver,  Burdett: 
1909. 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Holt:  1908. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Macm :  1908. 

Fairbanks,  A.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner's :   1910. 

Garner,  J.  W.,  Introduction  to  Political  Science,  Amer.  Book : 
1910. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1909. 

Groat,   G.,   Attitude   of  American   Courts  in  Labor   Cases, 

Columbia  Univ :  1911. 

Hall,  W.  E.,  International  Law,  Oxford  Univ.  Pr.  1904. 

Lawrence,  T.  J.,  Principles  of  International  Law,  Heath : 
1910. 

Leacock,    S.,    Elements    of    Political    Science,    Houghton, 
Mifflin:  1906. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences. 


121 


Parsons,  F.,  Legal  Doctrines  and  Social  Progress,  Huebsch: 
1911. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Macm:  1910. 

Seligman,  E.  R.  A.,  The  Income  Tax,  Macm:  1911. 

Taussig,  F.  W.,  Principles  of  Economics,  Macm:  1911. 

Willoughby,  W.  W.,  Rights  and  Duties  of  American  Citizen- 
ship, Amer.  Book:  1898. 

Wilson,  W.,  The  State,  Heath:  1899. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  VII. 

1.  The  Present  Political  Situation  in  your  City. 

2.  Sociological  Study  of  More's  Utopia. 

3.  A  study  of  Plato's  Republic. 

4.  An  analysis  of  Aristotle's  Politics. 

5.  A  study  of  the  Organization  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy. 

6.  A  Comparison  of  the  Governments  of  Germany  and  the 

United  States  from  a  Social  Standpoint. 

7.  History  and  Present  Status  of  Woman  Suffrage  in  the 

United  States. 

8.  The  College  Man  in  Politics. 

9.  Changing  Attitude  of  the  Courts  toward  Social  Leg- 

islation. 

10.  Social  Significance  of  Recent  Decisions  of  the  Supreme 

Court  of  the  United  States. 

11.  The  Relations  of  the  "Bosses"  in  Politics  to  the  Public 

Service  Corporations. 

12.  Recent  Social  Legislation. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ETHICAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  60.    THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  MORALTY. 

(1)  A  time  in  the  development  of  the  race  when  men  were 
non-moral. 

a.  Before  the  moral  consciousness  began  to  act,  race 
morality  was  based  on  custom. 

(2)  We  may  roughly  distinguish  three  levels  of  conduct,  each 
of  which  must  be  traversed  by  the  individual  before  he 
can  attain  the  higher  stage. 

a.  Conduct  arising  from  instincts  and  instinctive  needs. 

b.  Conduct  regulated  by  the  standards  of  society. 

c.  Conduct  which  is  both  social  and  rational. 

(3)  Motives  in  these  levels  show  a  similar  scale. 

a.  Motives  are  external  to  end  gained,  e.  g.,  man  seeks 
food,  position,  glory,  and  is  forced  to  practice  in- 
dustry, sobriety. 

b.  Motive  is  to  seek  some  good  which  is  "social;"  acts 
for  the  group  mainly  because  he  is  of  the  group. 

c.  In  full  morality,  man  values  acts  because  he  has  rea- 
soned about  them  and  concludes  that  they  are  right 
and  social. 

(4)  To  assist  in  effecting  this  moral  life,  nature  uses  several 
socializing  agencies. 

a.  Primitive  man  in  working,  in  conquering  enemies,  is 
forming  certain  elements  of  character. 

(a)   Which  if  not  moral  in  themselves  are  yet  in- 
dispensable requisites  for  full  morality. 

(5)  Work  as  a  character-building  agency. 

a.  With  beginning  of  agriculture,  men  who  succeed  must 
develop  continuity  of  purpose  and  foresight. 


123 


124         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  Must  organize  those  habits  which  are  the  basis  of 
character,  instead  of  yielding  entirely  to  the  impulse 
for  pleasure. 

c.  In  primitive  industry  there  was  much  concerted  work, 
in  hunting,  in  herding. 

(a)  This  co-operation  means  that  each  is  inter- 
ested in  success  of  all ;  means  development  of 
crude  sympathy. 

(6)  War  as  contributing  to  moral  development. 

a.  War  served  to  bring  out  courage,  efficiency,  a  sense 
of  power,  a  consciousness  of  achievement. 

(a)  All  of  these  may  be  used  for  immoral  ends, 
but  are  highly  important  in  an  effective  moral 
personality. 

(7)  The  arts  and  crafts — aside  from  their  influence  as  work, 
they  have  a  distinctly  elevating  and  refining  effect. 

a.  They  give  some  visible  or  audible  embodiment  for 
order  or  form. 

b.  In  conforming  to  this  order,  the  savage  or  child  is  in 
training  for  the  more  conscious  control  where  order 
and  law  may  oppose  the  impulses. 

(8)  Family  life  is  a  primitive  idealizing  agency;  it  exerts  a 
strong  influence  for  sympathy  and  altruism  in  the  child. 

a.  Upon  the  parents  themselves,  it  exerts  transforming 
power,    makes    life    serious,    overcomes    selfishness, 
projects  thought  and  hope  on  into  the  future. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Dealey,  Sociology,   146-65. 
Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XXV. 
Sumner,  Folkways,  Ch.  I. 
Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Ch.  III. 

SECTION  61.      CONDUCT  REGULATED  BY  CUSTOM. 

(1)   A  large  part  of  human  conduct,  in  savage  and  in  civilized 

life,  is  based  on  socially  approved  ways  of  acting,  common 

to  a  group,  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation. 

a.  Such  approved  ways  of  going  and  acting  are  customs 

or  mores;  they  are  habits,  and  moreover  they  imply 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  125 

the  judgment  of  the  group  that  they  are  to  be  fol- 
lowed. 

b.  Origin    of   the    mores — some   ways    of   acting   suc- 
ceeded, others  fail — the  former  become  the  mores. 

c.  Authority  behind  the  mores :  while  the  old  men,  medi- 
cine men,  priests  may  be  the  guardians  of  the  mores, 
the  authority  back  of  them  is  the  group  in  the  full 
sense. 

(a)  Not  simply  the  group  composed  of  the  living 
and  visible  members,  but  the  larger  group 
which  includes  the  dead  and  the  kindred  an- 
cestral gods. 

(2)  Means  of  enforcing  the  customs  or  mores. 

a.  Public  approval,  likely  to  be  emphasized  by  some  form 
of  art,  e.  g.,  songs  that  greet  the  returning  victor. 

(a)   Ridicule  or  contempt  is  a  sufficient  penalty  to 
enforce  compliance. 

b.  Taboo — is  itself  a  custom  invested  with  peculiar  and 

awful  sanction. 

(a)  It  prohibits  any  contact  with  certain  persons 
or  objects  under  penalty  of  danger  from  un- 
seen beings. 

(b)  In  order  to  have  a  supply  of  cocoanuts,  the 
chiefs    may    place    a    taboo    upon  the  young 
cocoanuts  to  save  them  till  ripe. 

c.  Ritual — as  taboo  is  great  negative  guardian  of  cus- 
toms, ritual  is  the  great  positive  agent. 

(a)  It  operates  by  forming  habits. 

(b)  The  charm  of  orderly  movement,  the  impres- 
siveness  of  ordered  masses  in  processions,  the 
awe  of  mystery,  all  contribute  to  stamp  in  the 
meaning  and  value. 

c.  Ritual  secures  the  actual  doing;  at  the  same  time 
stamps  in  the  meaning. 

d.  When  neither  group  opinion,  nor  taboo,  nor  ritual 
secures  conformity,  there  is  always  in  the  background 
physical  force. 

(3)  Value  and  defects  of  customary  morality. 


126         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Only  partly  rational;    many    customs  are  irrational, 
some  are  injurious. 

b.  In  it  all,  the  habitual  is  a  large  if  not  the  largest 
factor. 

c.  Involves  misplaced  energy;  what  is  merely  trivial  is 
made  as  important  as  what  has  real  value. 

d.  The  motive  involved  is  chiefly  a  quasi-social  fear,  no 
longer  a  purely  instinctive  reaction. 

e.  Its  weakness  is  that  the  element  of  habit  is  so  large, 
that  of  freedom  so  small. 

/.  It  protects  the  average  man;  it  holds  back  the  man 
who  might  forge  ahead;  it  is  an  anchor,  and  a  drag. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Ch.  IV. 

Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  IV,  Ch.  III. 

Sumner,  Folkways,  Ch.  XV. 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XXIV. 

SECTION  62.     A  COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOM  AND  RE- 
FLECTIVE MORALITY. 

(1)  With  every  increase  of  opportunity  for  good,  there  is  a 
corresponding  opportunity  for  evil. 

a.  Some  will  react  to  the  larger  situation  so  as  to  rise 
to  a  higher  moral  level,  both  in  personal  integrity  and 
in  personal  usefulness. 

b.  Others  will  find  temptations  too  strong  for  their  con- 
trol and  become  vicious  or  will  seize  the  chance  to 
exploit  others. 

c.  For  a  Jane  Addams,  there  are  women  who  will  trade 
in  the  wretchedness  of  their  kind. 

d.  The  evolution  of  morality  may  be  also  an  evolution  of 
weakness,  wretchedness,  evil,  and  crime. 

(2)  Persistence  of  group  morality. 

a.  Each  profession  and  institution  today  has  a  code  of 
which  the  individual  has  to  take  account. 

b.  Group  and  custom  morality  is  still  the  morality  of 
many  of  us  most  of  the  time  and  of  all  of  us  some 
of  the  time. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  127 

c.  In  the  family  group,  school-group,  we  must  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  accept  standards  that  are  given. 

(a)  We  have  to  play  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
game. 

(3)  Reflective  morality  is  the  mark  of  a  progressive  society, 
just  as  customary  morality  is  of  a  stationary  society. 

a.  For  the  sake  of  progress,  there  is  the  necessity  of 
exercising  some  discriminating  intelligence  as  to  ex- 
isting conditions. 

b.  Fortunate  for  social  progress,  that  the  morally  more 
advanced  members  keep  their  eyes  open  to  the  defects 
of  the  existing  social  order. 

c.  Fortunate  that  some  individuals  reflect  on  their  own 
behavior  in  relation  to  the  existing  order  as  a  stand- 
ing habit  of  mind. 

(4)  Fact  that    reflective    morality    requires    reflection  and  a 
deeper  meaning  of  life  than  customary  morality,  makes  ob- 
vious why  many  fail  to  grasp  any  moral  meaning  at  all  in 
life. 

a.  A  "sport"  may  be  so  busy  in  catering  to  the  empty 
applause  of  a  large  leisure  class  as  not  to  perceive  the 
emptiness  of  it  all. 

b.  A  "lady"  may  be  so  engaged  by  the  multifarious  de- 
mands of  "society"  as  never  to  notice  what  an  utterly 
worthless  round  she  follows. 

c.  In  same  way,  a  man  who  feels  honest  because  he  does 
not  break  contracts  may    be    quite    at    ease   about 
adulterating  goods. 

d.  A  society  which  abhors  murder  with  iron  in  the  fotm 
of  daggers  may  feel  quite  unconcerned  about  pre- 
ventable deaths  by  iron  machinery  in  factories. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Ch.  IX. 

Lea,  "Ethical  Values  in  History,"  Am.  Hist.  Assn.    Report., 

1903,  1 :53-69. 
McMaster,  "Old  Standards   of    Public    Morals,"  Am.  Hist. 

Assn.  Report.,  1905,  1 :55-70. 


128         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Stephens,  Social  Rights  and  Duties,  131-73. 
Sumner,  Folkways,  Ch.  XIX. 

SECTION  63.     THE  ETHICS  OF  MODERN  BUSINESS. 

(1)  The  ethics  of  modern  business  for  a  long  time,  was  that 
the  individual  may  rightly  promote  his  economic  welfare 
in  any  way  in  which  the  law  as  enforced  does  not  ex- 
plicitly prevent. 

a.  To  sell  as  dearly  as  possible,  to  buy  as  cheaply  as 
possible,  both  produce  and  labor,  are  its  maxims. 

b.  Of  late  this  existing  ethics  of  business  has  been  held 
responsible  for  many  of  the  most  serious  social  evils. 

c.  It  is  held  that  this  ethics  has  robbed  the  laborer  of 
his  proportionate  share  of  the  profits  of  production, 
of  the  means  required  for  a  fair  standard  of  living. 

(2)  The  reasons  for  the  present  ethics  of  business  are  to  be 
found  in  history. 

a.  In  early  times,  the  merchant  was  an  alien,  outside  of 
the  groups  of  blood-kin;  he  was  outside  the  pale;  a 
group  might  do  to  him  or  he  to  them,  anything  either 
could. 

b.  Trade  at  first  was  not  governed,  hence,  by  the  usual 
ethical  standards  of  community  or  family  life. 

c.  Considered  excellent  business  by  the  merchant  if  he 
could  steal  the  natives'  women  and  children. 

d.  The  earliest  law  of  trade  was  the  law  of  theft. 

e.  The  regulation  of  trade  in  all  its  branches,  was  left 
for  centuries  in  the  hands  of  the  merchants  them- 
selves. 

/.  For  only  a  little  more  than  a  century  has  the  merchant 

been  deprived  of  his  own  law. 
g.  The  possession  of  wealth  was  considered  as  evidence 

of  the  possession  of  ability  and  therefore  of  virtue. 
h.  To  the  support   of   the   merchant   came    philosophy, 

teaching  that  the  good  of  the  individual  was  supreme. 
*'.  Hence   the   average   individual   distinctly   obtained   a 

strong  confirmation  of  his  own  idea  that  the  pur- 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  129 

suance  of  his  selfish  ends  in  any  possible  way  was 
justifiable  and  right. 

(3)   The  new  ethics  of  business  proposes  to  abolish  the  stand- 
ard of  right  conduct  by  which  the  race  has  lived. 

a.  We  are  face  to  face  with  the  fact  that  the  race  is 
essentially  primitive  in  its  business  relations. 

b.  All  unconscious  of  its  support  modern  business  is 
still  partly  intrenched  behind  the  primitive  concep- 
tion of  trade  and  is  fortified  by  modern  philosophy. 

c.  The  present  method  of  social  procedure  is  to  move 
on  and  reduce  the  fortifications. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Usher,  "The  Ethics  of  Business,"  Atl.  Mon.,  Oct.  1912. 
Hadley,  Standards  of  Public  Morality,  Chs.  II,  III. 
Rauschenbusch,  Christianizing  the  Social  Order,  Pt.  IV. 
MacGregor,  "Ethical  Aspects  of  Industrialism,"  Intern.  Jour. 

Ethics,  19:284-96. 
Ross,  Sin  and  Society,  Ch.  I,  if. 

SECTION  64.     THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  RELIGION. 

(1)  The  science  of  religion  shows  that  religion  is  universal 
and  that  it  springs  from  an  impulse  that  is  native  to  the 
human  mind. 

a.  Religion  exists  because  men  find  themselves  and  their 
world  standing  over  against  each  other  in  an  antithesis 
that  needs  to  be  resolved. 

(2)  Four  factors  are  involved  in  the  religious  impulse. 

a.  A  more  or  less  clear  realization  by  man  that  he  is 
limited. 

b.  Human  wants  always  outrun  their  supply. 

c.  The  ideal  world  is  taken  as  the  truly  real  world  be- 
cause of  the  strength  of  our  felt  wants. 

d.  The  specific  qualities  are  derived  from  our  human 
experiences. 

(3)  The  unity  of  all  religion:  the  religions  of  the  world  are 

manifestations  of  the  religion  of  the  world. 
a.  Not  fair  to  say  that  there  is  one  true  religion,  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  all  others  are  false. 


130         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(4)   Of  the  things  that  all  savages  possess,  religion  is  one. 

a.  Where  the  sense  of  need  has  sent  a  human  being  to 
hold  intercourse  with  a  higher  Power,  there  religion 
is  making  its  appearance. 

(5)  Earliest  objects  of  worship. 

a.  Man  early  conceived  the  sun,  moon,  winds,  heaven  as 
beings  like  himself,  as  guided  by  feelings  and  motives 
similar  to  his  own. 

(a)   The  thunderstorm  was  a  being  who  had  power 
to  end  a  drought. 

b.  Ancestor-worship, — the  ancestor  represents  the  family 
to    which    the    individual    is   called  to   subordinate 
himself. 

c.  Fetish- worship, — some  objects  are  worshiped  not  be- 
cause of  intrinsic  value,  but  because  a  spirit  or  god  is 
supposed  to  reside  in  them. 

d.  Worship  of  animals, — primitive  man  respected  them 
for  the  qualities  in  which  they  excelled  him. 

(6)  Early  practices, — in  early  times,  man's  religion  consisted 

in  the  religious  acts  he  did  more  than  in  his  beliefs 
as  now. 

a.  Sacrifice,  an  invariable  feature  of  early  religion, — in 
this  way,  the  relation  with  the  deity  was  renewed, 
strengthened. 

b.  Prayer  is  the  ordinary  concomitant  of  the  sacrifice; 
the  worshipper  explains  the  reason  of  the  gift,  urges 
the  deity  to  accept  it,  and  to  grant  the  help  that  is 
needed. 

c.  Taboo  is  used;  what  belongs  to  a  deity  must  not  be 
touched. 

d.  No  temple,  no  idols,  no  priests  in  the  early  world — 
the  worship  of  nature  does  not  suggest  the  enclosing 
of  a  space  for  religious  acts. 

(7)  Primitive  man  conceived  that  there  was  without  him  that 
of  which  his  inner  consciousness  bore  him  witness. 

a.  An  ideal,  a  being  not  grasped  by  the  senses,  which 
could  help  him,  which  had  the  power  he  himself  had 
not. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  131 

b.  This  and  not  the  faulty  outward  expression  was  the 

living"  and  growing  element  of  his  religion. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Chs.  I,  V. 

Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotion,  Ch.  IX. 

Ames,  The  Psychology  of  Religious  Experience,  Pt.  II. 

Coe,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  Chs.  XII,  XIII. 

SECTION  65.      THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  RE- 
LIGION. 

(1)  Primitive   groups   are   essentially   animistic;   innumerable 
spirits  are  worshipped,  but  this  becomes  burdensome. 

a.  Then   many  objects   of   worship  are   supplanted  by 
relatively  a  few  deities. 

b.  Polytheism  in  turn  tends  to  become  a  source  of  con- 
flicts and  is  cumbersome. 

c.  Then  the   leading  deity  that   is   worshipped  by  the 
leading    tribe    becomes    supreme — the  beginning  of 
monotheism  and  also  of  a  national  religion. 

(2)  The  national  religion  rises  slowly  out  of  tribal  religions. 

a.  The  sacred  forms  are  written  down  and  obtain  the 
force  of  divine  laws. 

b.  Men  come  to  know  a  deity  who  is  higher  than  their 
former  tribal  gods. 

c.  A  new  social  bond — no  longer  the  tie  of  blood  which 
binds  the  people  to  their  gods  but  a  more  ideal  and 
more  spiritual  tie. 

d.  Possess  a  better  deity,  who  belongs  to  all  the  tribes 
and  is  not  the  mere  partisan  of  any. 

(3)  Some  national  religions. 

a.  The  Inca  religion — a  state  religion  which  superseded 
savage  cults  still  remembered  in  the  country. 

b.  Confucianism — ancient   state   religion   with   worship 
of  Confucius  added  to  it. 

(a)  A  religion  in  which,  as  in  the  primitive  stage, 
outward  acts  are  everything,  the  doctrine  noth- 
ing; not  regulated  by  an  organized  code,  but 
by  custom  or  precedent. 


132         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

c.  Egyptian  religion — centered  about  the  tombs. 

(a)  No  other  nation  ever  bestowed  so  much  care 
on  the  dead  as  did  the  Egyptians ;  nor  thought 
of  the  other  world  so  much. 

d.  The    Greek    religion — no    sacred    books    in    it,    no 
theology,  no  religious  instruction ;  but  a  doctrine  of 
God  and  concentration  of  thought  on  ethical  problems 
of  the  individual. 

(a)   Later  took  possession  of  the  Roman  world. 

e.  Israelitish  religion — worship  of  Yahweh,  who  never 
could  permit  Israel  to  suffer  any  fatal  injury. 

(4)  Rise  of  universal  religions. 

a.  With  the  coming  of  the  prophets,  the  universalism  (no 
longer  national)  of  the  Hebrew  religion  appears. 

b.  Another  universal  religion,  bound  to  spread  beyond 
national  limits  was  growing  in  India — Buddhism. 

c.  The  most  recent  of  the  so-called  universal  forms  of 
religion  is  Mohammedanism. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Ch.  VI. 

Peschel,  in  Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ch.  XL 

Dealey,  Sociology,  138-46. 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XVI. 

SECTION  66.     THE  NON-SOCIAL  EMPHASIS  OF 
BUDDHISM. 

( 1 )  In  Buddhism,  the  great  movement  of  Indian  religion  works 
itself  out  to  its  ultimate  conclusion. 

a.  Without  a  god,  without  prayer,  without  priesthood  or 
worship. 

b.  Now  extinct  in  India,  yet  it  numbers  more  adherents 
than  any  other  religion  in  China,  Japan,  Java,  Ceylon, 
Siam,  Tibet. 

(2)  Gautama,  the  founder,  at  age  of  29,  began  to  realize  that 

suffering  accompanies  all  existence,  scorned  a  life  of 
rank  and  ease. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  133 

a.  Turned  to  that  retirement  and  absorption  in  which  it 
was  believed  that  the  key  to  life's  pains  and  mysteries 
was  to  be  found. 

b.  Finally    rose    in    contemplation,  beholding  the  true 
nature  of  things,  Buddha,  Enlightened. 

c.  Sorrow  and  evil  lost  all  hold  on  him;  he  reached 
emancipation  by  the  destruction  of  desire. 

(3)  Doctrine  is  not  socially  of  a  revolutionary  character. 

a.  Professes  to  be  an  answer  to  an  old  and  definite  prob- 
lem, the  problem  of  pain. 

b.  Towards  fellowmen,  Buddhist  morality  is  based  on 
the  equality  of  all — respect  is  to  be  paid  to  all  living 
beings. 

c.  Hatred  is  to  be  repaid  by  love ;  life  is  to  be  filled  with 
kindness  and  compassion. 

d.  Man,  if  he  is  to  be  saved,  must  save  himself  by  his 
own  efforts;  no  one  can  relieve  him  of  any  part  of 
his  great  task. 

e.  Buddhism    proved    popular    and    spread    over  many 
lands,  because  so  simple,  in  its  essence  so  moral  and 
broadly  human. 

(4)  Social  weaknesses  of  Buddhism. 

a.  The  believer  does  not  trouble  himself  about  the  world, 
but  only  about  his  own  salvation. 

b.  Is  not  a  social  force ;  aims  not  at  a  "kingdom  of  God." 

c.  Is  sad  and  socially  depressing. 

d.  It  checks  rather  than  fosters  enterprise ;  not  a  power 
which  makes  actively  for  civilization. 

e.  Favors  a  dull  conformity  to  rule,  rather  than  a  free 
cultivation  of  various  gifts. 

/.  Its  ideal  is  to  empty  life  of  everything  active,  rather 
than  to  concentrate  energy  on  a  strong  purpose. 

g.  It  does  not  train  the  affections  and  desires  to  virtuous 
and  harmonious  action,  but  denies  to  them  all  action 
and  consigns  them  to  extinction. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Ch.  XX. 


134         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Rao,  " Significance  of  the  Buddhistic  Ethics,"  Westm.  Rev., 

176:308-19. 
Lilly,  "Message  of  Buddhism  to  the  Western  World,"  Fortn  • 

84:197-214. 
Davids,  Early  Buddhism  (entire  book). 

SECTION  67.     THE  ANTI-SOCIAL  TEACHING  OF 
MOHAMMEDANISM. 

(1)  In  chronological  order,   Mohammedanism  stands  last  of 
the  great  religions  of  the  world;  appeared  six  centuries 
after  Christianity,  and  Christian  ideas  enter  into  it. 

a.  Mohammed  early  became  connected  with  Hanyfs  or 
penitents. 

b.  Was  forty  years  of  age  when  the  thoughts  which  had 
long  been  working  within  him  burst  into  open  ex- 
pression through  a  vision. 

c.  He  resorted  freely  to  compromise  in  order  to  make 
his  religion  and  policy  suitable  to  the  masses  of  the 
people. 

d.  In  his  earlier  teaching,  Mohammed  speaks  of  his  own 
religion  as  being  substantially  the  same  as  Judaism, 
but  hostility  soon  developed. 

e.  Allah,  whom  Mohammed  came  to  reveal  is  not  a  his- 
torical deity. 

(a)  He  is  an  idea  consolidated — originally  a  title 
which  the  Arab  conferred  on  his  god  whatever 
the  proper  name  of  that  being  might  be. 

(b)  A  monotheism  of  a  grave  and  earnest  kind 
thus  made  its  way  beside  the  old  belief  in  many 
gods. 

(2)  Spread  of  Mohammedanism — embassies  early  sent  to  king 
of  Persia,  to  the  governor  of  Egypt  and  other  rulers  call- 
ing upon  them  to  give  up  their  idolatrous  worships. 

a.  War  against  "infidels"  was  standing  program. 

b.  By  the  sword  and  sacred  wars,  Mohammedanism  as- 
sumes the  role  of  a  universal  religion. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  135 

(3)  Has  doctrine  of  the  unity  and  omnipotence  of  Allah  and 
of  the  responsibility  of  every  human  being  to  his  Creator 
and  Judge. 

a.  Holds  to  the  submissive  attitude  of  the  soul,  of  im- 
plicit surrender  to  the.  great  Allah,  of  entire  ac- 
quiescense  and  entire  obedience  to  his  will. 

(4)  Its  social  weakness — is  not  progressive. 

a.  Allah  is  but  a  negative  of  other  deities. 

(a)  He  does  not  inspire  with  ideals  of  goodness, 
but  he  holds  back  from  evil. 

(b)  He  is  not  a  being  who  is  ever  likely  to  enter, 
like  the  God  of  the  Jews,  into  intimate  and 
affectionate  relations  with  men. 

(c)  He  is  too  abstract  to  be  capable  of  much  un- 
bending. 

(d)  He   does   not   sympathize   with  the   manifold 
growth  of  human  society. 

(e)  Inspiration  which  he  gives  is  an  impulse  of 
hostility  to  what  is  over  against  him,  not  an 
impulse  to  strive  after  high  and  fair  ideals. 

(/)  He  does  not  enter  into  humanity  and  there- 
fore he  cannot  render  to  humanity  the  highest 
services. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Ch.  XIII. 
Ameer,  Ali,  Syed,  Islam  (entire  book). 
Morrison,  "Can  Islam  be  Reformed,"  19th  Cent.  64:543-51. 
Vambery,  "Approach  between  Moslems  and  Buddhists,"  19th 
Cent.,  71 :657-66. 

SECTION  68.     THE  SOCIALIZING  POWER  OF 
CHRISTIANITY. 

(1)  Christianity  was  at  first  a  movement  within,  Judaism, — 
from  small  beginnings,  but  with  a  doctrine  that,  if  circum- 
stances favored,  could  not  fail  to  spread  beyond  Judea,  t<? 
men  of  other  lands  and  tongues. 


136         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(2)  Its  doctrine  was  that  the  long-expected  intercourse  of  God 
and  man  on  new  terms  of  perfect  agreement  and  sympathy 
had  come  into  operation. 

a.  God  is  the  father,  men  are  his  children ;  all  that  men 
have  to  do  to  realize  that  this  is  so,  is  to  enter  the 
circle  and  begin  to  live  with  God  on  such  terms. 

b.  Religion  is  no  more,  no  less  than  communion  of 
child  with  his  Father. 

c.  Father  and  son  dwell  together  in  love  and  confidence ; 
not  a  matter  of  apparatus  but  an  affair  of  love. 

d.  Nothing  could  be  simpler,  deeper,  broader. 

e.  Religion  is  here  presented  free  from  all  local,  acci- 
dental or  obscuring  elements;  religion  itself  is  here 
revealed. 

/.  God  inspires  man    not    to    any    particular    kind  of 
acts,  nor  to  withdrawal  from  the  world,  but  inspires 
him  to  realize  himself  in  society. 
g.  Prayer  is  necessary — the  child  must  keep  in  touch 

with  his  Father. 

h.  Jesus  announced  a  new  union  of  God  with  man,  a 
union  in  which  he  is  the  first  to  rejoice,  but  which  all 
may  share  along  with  him. 

(a)  Jesus  formed  a  circle  of  disciples  and  adher- 
ents which  afterward  came  to  be  the  Christian 
Church. 

*'.  Task  of  Paul  to  work  out  the  universality  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

(a)  After  some  conflict,  in  the  church  all  racial 
differences  disappear;  "In  Christ  there  is 
neither  Jew  nor  Greek." 

(3)  A  comparison  with  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism. 

a.  Buddhism  is  not  a  full  religion;  it  does  not  tend  to 
action  but  to  passivity,  and  affords  no  help  to  prog- 
ress. 

b.  Mohammedanism  is  a  yoke  rather  than  an  inspira- 
tion; it  is  inwardly  hostile  to  freedom,   and  is  in- 
capable of  aiding  in  higher  moral  development. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  137 

c.  Christianity  identifies  itself  with  the  cause  of  free- 
dom, tends  to  unite  all  men  in  one  great  brotherhood 
under  God  who  is  the  Father  of  all  alike — a  great 
if  not  the  greatest  socializing  force  of  all  times. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Ch.  XXII. 

Rauschenbusch,    Christianizing   the    Social    Order,    Pt.    II, 

Ch.  VI. 

Patten,  Social  Basis  of  Religion,  Ch.  XV. 
Nearing,  Social  Religion,  Ch.  I.  ff. 
Batten,  Social  Task  of  Christianity,  Ch.  I.  ff. 

SECTION  69.     THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  RELIGION 
AND  MODERN  RELIGIOUS'  PROBLEMS. 

(1)  All  religion  of  the  world  is  one  and  religions  are  every- 
where a  more  or  less  faulty  expression  of  attempts  to 
reach  out  to  a  higher  Power. 

a.  The  growth  of  human  needs  and  of  the  understand- 
ing of  human  needs  is  the  cause  of  religious  growth. 

b.  Tribal  religion  is  characteristic  of  that  stage  where 
man's  energies  are  entirely  occupied  in  the  struggle 
against  nature  and  other  tribes. 

(a)  Conditions  of  life  do  not  permit  the  mind  to 
develop;  his  religion  is  a  mass  of  childish 
fancies  and  of  fixed  traditions. 

c.  State  religion:  in  the  state,  the  leading  classes  hav- 
ing gained   some   leisure,   ideas   of   a   higher  order 
spring  up. 

(a)  The  offices  of  worship  are  upheld  by  the  whole 
power  of  the  state. 

(b)  With  a  growing  national   worship,  the  lives 
of  the  citizens  have  been  growing  richer,  and 
dissatisfaction    with    a    formal    state    religion 
has  developed. 

d.  Present  tendency :   a  religion  free  from  all   that  is 
artificial,  with  room   for  intellectual  effort  and  the 
development  of  the  individual  in  social  service. 


138         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  The  need   for  God  Himself  rather  than  for 
His  gifts  is  the  developing  need. 

(b)  Not   without  a   divine   call,   and  not  without 
divine  guidance  did  man  set  out  so  early,  and 
persevere  so  constantly  in  spite  of  all  his  dis- 
appointments in  the  search  of  God. 

(2)   Modern  problems  of  religion. 

a.  To  know  more  of  God  and  penetrate  further  into  the 
Unknown ;  to  connect  finite  life  with  the  Infinite. 

b.  To  give  to  all  men  the  highest  attained  knowledge 
of  God. 

(a) If  present  religious  truth  were  accepted  gen- 
erally and  availed  of  by  men,  many  great 
problems  would  be  solved,  and  great  strides 
would  be  taken  in  social  progress. 

c.  To  get  people  to  live  up  to  the  religious  truth  they 
now  have. 

(a)  Economic  and  selfish  impulses  tend  con- 
tinually to  crowd  out  the  religious. 

d.  To  get  a  unified  program  of  religious  procedure. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Menzies,  History  of  Religion,  Ch.  XXIII. 

James,  Varieties  of  Religious  Experience,  Ch.  XX. 

Coe,  The  Spiritual  Life,  Ch.  V. 

Kidd,   B.   in   Carver,    Sociology   and    Social   Progress,   Ch. 

XVIII. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  II,  Ch.  XL 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  VIIL 

Addams,  J.,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  Macm. :  1907. 

Ameer  Ali,  Syed,  Islam,  Open  Court:  1906. 

Ames,  E.  S.,  Psychology  of  Religious  Experiences,  Hough- 
ton,   Mifflin:    1910. 

Batten,  S.  Z.,  Social  Task  of  Christianity,  Revell:  1911. 

Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. :  1905. 

Carver,  T.  N.,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ginn:  1905. 

Coe,  G.  A.,  The  Spiritual  Life,  Eaton  and  Mains :  1900. 

Coe,  G.  A.,  Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  Revell :  1904. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  139 

Davids,  T.  W.  R.,  Early  Buddhism,  Open  Court. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett:  1909. 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Holt:  1908. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Social  Aspects  of  Christianity,  Crowell :  1889. 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Standards  of  Public  Morality,  Macm. :  1908. 

King,  H.  C,  Ethics  of  Jesus,  Macm. :  1912. 

Mathews,  S.,  The  Social  Teaching  of  Jesus,  Macm. :  1910. 

Menzies,  A.,  History  of  Religion,  Scribner's :  1906. 

Nearing,  Scott,  Social  Religion,  Macm. :  1913. 

Patten,  S.  N.,  Social  Basis  of  Religion,  Macm.:   1912. 

Paulsen,  F.,  System  of  Ethics,  Scribner's:  1906. 

Peabody,  F.,  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Social  Question,  Macm. : 

1912. 
Peabody,    F.,    Jesus    Christ    and   the    Christian    Character, 

Macm. :  1905. 
Rauschenbusch,    W.,    Christianity    and    the    Social    Crisis, 

Macm.:  1907. 
Rauschenbusch,  W.,  Christianizing  the  Social  Order,  Macm. : 

1912. 

Ribot,  Th.,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Scribner's:  1911. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Macm.:  1910. 
Small,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Univ.  of  Chi.  Pr. :  1905. 
Sorley,  W.  R.,  The  Moral  Life,  Univ.  of  Cambr.  Pr. :  1911. 
Spencer,  H.,  Principles  of  Ethics,  Appleton:  1892. 
Stephen,  F.,  Social  Rights  and  Duties,  Sonnenshein :  1896. 
Sumner,  W.  G.,  Folkways,  Ginn:   1907. 
Westermarck,  E.,  Origin  and  Development  of  Moral  Ideals, 

Macm.:  1906. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  Fill. 

1.  A  Study  of  Sumner's  Folkways. 

2.  Sources  of  Your  Standards  of  Right  and  Wrong. 

3.  A  Study  of  College  Honor. 

4.  Social  Duties  from  a  Christian  Point  of  View. 

5.  The  Moral  Influence  of  Inter-collegiate  Athletic  Contests. 

6.  High  School  Boys'  Morals. 

7.  Moral  Standards  in  the  Schools. 

8.  Double   Standards  of  Morality. 


140         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

9.  A  Survey  of  Moral  Progress  in  the  Race., 

10.  Moral  Character  as  Developed  by  Plays  and  Games. 

11.  Social  Morality  and  Public  Recreation. 

12.  The  Relation  between  Church  and  Labor. 

13.  Religious  Training  in  the  Public  Schools. 

14.  A  Rural  Church  in  a  Given  Community. 

15.  The  Work  and  Organization  of  the  Salvation  Army  in 
Your  City. 

16.  The  Minister  as  a  Social  Servant. 

17.  Analysis  of  Writings  of  Rauschenbusch. 

18.  A  Comparison  of  Christianity  and  Judaism  from  a  Social 
Viewpoint. 

19.  The  Relation  of  Religion  to  Politics. 

20.  The  History  and  Social  Activities  (and  possibilities)  o 
Your  Church. 

21.  Relation  of  Christianity  to  Capitalism. 

22.  The  Social  Awakening  of  the  Churches. 


.1 

, 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

AESTHETIC  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  70.    THE  EARLIEST  EXPRESSIONS  OF  THE 
AESTHETIC  FEELINGS. 

(1)  The  beautifying  of  any  object  is  due  to  impulses  which 
are  common  to  all  men. 

a.  Birth  of  the  embellishing  art  may  be  sought  in  that 
stage   of   animal   development   when   instinct   began 
to   discover   that   certain   adornments   increased   at- 
tractiveness. 

b.  When  art  in  its  human  sense  came  into  existence, 
ideas  of  embellishment  soon  extended  from  the  per- 
son to  adornment  of  all  things  with  which  man  had 
to  deal. 

c.  Art  appears  among  all  peoples  and  in  all  periods  as  a 
social  manifestation. 

(a)  We  renounce  at  once  the  comprehension  of  its 
nature  and  its  significance  if  it  is  regarded 
simply  as  an  individual  phenomenon. 

(2)  Certain  needs  of  man  seem  to  have  constrained  him  to 
artistic  effort. 

a.  Art  for  art's  sake,  for  the  sensuous  pleasure  of  form, 
hue,  color,  and  sound. 

b.  Information — to   convey  information,   when  oral  or 
gesture  language  is  impossible,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  pictorial  signs  of  one  form  or  another. 

c.  Wealth — the  desire  for  enhancing  the  value  of  per- 
sonal property  has  led  to  production  of  ornamenta- 
tion. 

d.  Religion — man's  need  to  put  himself  into  sympathetic 
relation  with  unseen  powers  has  always  expressed 
itself  in  visual  form. 

141 


142         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(3)  Two  groups  of  arts:  the  arts  of  rest  strive  to  please 
through  "resting" ;  the  arts  of  motion  strive  to  please 
through  moving  forms. 

a.  Arts  of  rest — decoration,  painting,  sculpture — some- 
times designated  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts. 

(a)  Object  to  which  decoration  was  earliest  ap- 
plied was  human  body,  then  to  implements  and 
weapons. 

(b)  This  was  followed  by  works  of  free  painting 
and  sculpture. 

b.  Arts  of  motion — dance,  song  and  poetry,  music. 

(a)  The  dance  which  may  be  conceived  as  living 
sculpture,  forms  the  transition  from  the  arts 
of  rest  to  the  arts  of  motion. 

(b)  Among  primitive  peoples,  the  folk-dances,  etc., 
are  adapted  more  than  any  other  form  of  art 
to   deepen   the   knowledge   of   the   social   im- 
portance of  art. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Chs.  Ill,  IV. 

Von  Reber,  Fr.,  History  of  Ancient  Art,  1-98. 

Knight,  The  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Vol.  I,  Chs.  I,  II. 

Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotions,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  X. 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XX. 

Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  209-12. 

SECTION  71.    PERSONAL  DECORATION  AND  THE  DE- 
SIRE TO  PLEASE. 

(1)  All  hunting  peoples  are  much  more  richly  and  carefully 
decorated  than  clothed. 

a.  Primitive  ornament  may  be  fixed  or  movable ;  the 
fixed  includes  all  permanent  cosmetic  modifications 
of  the  body  such  as  scarification,  tattooing,  boring  of 
the  nose,  lips,  and  ears. 

b.  Movable  ornament,  loosely  and  temporarily  connected 
with  the  body,  includes  tassels,  bands,  girdles,  rings, 
pendants. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  143 

(2)  Painting  of  the  body  most  eminently  represents  the  orig- 
inal form  of  decoration ;  prevails  quite  generally  in  lowest 
grades  of  culture. 

a.  In  his  everyday  life,  the  Australian  is  satisfied  with  a 
few  spots  on  his  cheeks  and  shoulders,  but  on  festive 
occasions  he  extends  the  painting  over  his  whole  body. 

b.  Painting  for  mourning  purposes  pervails:  the  white 
European  mourns  in  black  clothes,  the  black  Austral- 
ian mourns  in  white  earth. 

c.  As  white  women  try  to  enhance  their  attractiveness 
by  powder  and  chalk,  so  the  black  races  try  to  in- 
crease the  attractiveness  of  their  dark  skins  by  means 
of  fat  and  charcoal  dust. 

(3)  Bodily  decoration  by  painting  is  transitory,  hence  pains 
have  been  taken  to  impress  the  design  on  the  body  in  some 
lasting  way. 

a.  The  two  means   of  accomplishing  this   which  have 
spread  over  almost  the  whole  earth  are  scarification 
and  tattooing. 

b.  Scarification  has   found  practice   only  among  dark- 
skinned  peoples,  for  the  scars  stand  out  only  on  a 
dark  skin. 

c.  Tattooing  has  spread  only  among  fairer  peoples  for  a 
similar  reason. 

(4)  Dressing  of  the  hair   forms   a  transition   from  movable 
to   permanent   decoration,    so   far   as   it   is   governed   by 
aesthetic  considerations. 

a.  Sometimes  the  hair  is  thickly  kneaded  with  red  ochre 
and  fat,  and  feathers,  crabs'  claws,  etc.,  are  stuck  in 
the  viscous  locks. 

b.  Birds  have  to  bear  the  principal  part  of  the  expense 
of  the  primitive  headdress  everywhere. 

(5)  The  feather  has  maintained  its  original  place  in  decora- 
tion throughout  the  changes  of  culture  until  to-day. 

a.  It  waves  on  the  helmets  of  the  civilized  as  well  as  on 
the  headband  of  the  primitive  warrior. 

b.  Even  the  Bushman's  fashion  of  wearing  whole  birds' 
heads  has  been  lifted  into  honor  again. 


144         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(6)  Civilization   has  never   succeeded  in   freeing  itself   from 
the   decorative  forms  which  strike  us  most  strangely  in 
primitive  men. 

a.  Development  of  decoration  has  increased  the  range 
of  material  and  refined  its  technique. 

b.  But  it  has  not  been  able  to  contribute  even  so  much 
as  one  essentially  new  piece  to  the  primitive  stock  of 
forms. 

(7)  The  first  and  most  powerful  motive  that  induces  men  to 
decorate  themselves  is  undoubtedly  the  desire  to  please. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  III. 

Ratzel,    History    of    Mankind,    1 :93-106,    and    in    Thomas, 

Source  Book,  549-58. 
Bascom,  Aesthetics,  Lect.  III. 
Haddon,  Evolution  in  Art,  2-10;  in  Thomas,  Source  Book, 

543-49. 

SECTION    72.    ORNAMENTATION    AND    ARCHITEC- 
TURE AS  EXPRESSIONS  OF  HUMAN  DESIRES. 

(1)   In  addition  to  personal  decoration,  ornamentation  of  im- 
plements, weapons,  and  of  other  objects  early  developed. 

a.  Ornamentations   of  primitive   peoples   are   copies  of 
natural  forms ;  not  purely  geometrical  figures  as  they 
may  appear,  but  they  seem  to  be  derived  from  animal 
forms. 

b.  Our    ornamental   art   likewise   applies    such   natural 
motives  in  richest  measure;  scarcely  an  ornamental 
object  that  is  not  adorned  with  leaf,  flower,  or  vine 
work. 

c.  The  principle  of  rhythmic  arrangement  is  not  less 
plainly  and  frequently  evident  in  the  art  of  lowest 
savages   than   in   that  of   the   most  highly   civilized 
peoples. 

(a)  Pleasure  in  rhythm  (in  this  case,  in  the  repeti- 
tion of  a  figure),  is  in  reality  a  universal  hu- 
man property. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  145 

d.  Decoration  demands  and  promotes  a  technical  skill, 
which  works  in  its  turn  to  the  benefit  of  practical 
interests. 

(a)  An  unsymmetrically  shaped  weapon  does  not 
hit  with  the  same  accuracy  as  a  symmetrical 
one. 

e.  Modern  shameful  prostitution  of  ornamental  art  to 
the   interests   of   our  modern   manufacturing  enter- 
prise has  now,  largely,  destroyed  its  charm  and  force. 

(2)  Architecture  exhibits  the  intellectual  and  emotional  re- 
sources of  man. 

a.  In  landscape  gardening,  man  presents  the  work  of 
God,  living  products ;  but  in  architecture,  he  presents 
his  own  work  and  his  power  over  materials. 

b.  Architecture  comes  under  the  law  of  utility :  men  do 
not  say,  I  shall  build  beauty,  but  I  shall  build  a  beau- 
tiful building. 

c.  The  utilities  which  architecture  seeks  fall  into  three 
classes. 

(a)  Buildings   for  protection   constitute  the  first 
and  larger  class  of  edifices;  unsheltered  man 
has  sought  shelter. 

(b)  Structures   for  purposes   of  transit — bridges, 
aqueducts,  tunnels. 

(c)  A  monumental  class  of  structures,  memorials 
for  the   dead   and   to   commemorate   historic 
events. 

d.  In  modern  cities,   iron  begins  to  occupy  the  place 
once  occupied  by  stone,  with  this  loss,  that  it  makes 
the  most  elaborate  architecture  relatively  cheap. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  VI. 

Bascom,  Aesthetics,  Lect.  XII. 

Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  X. 

Raymond,  Painting,  Sculpture  and  Architecture,  Ch.  XIII. 


10 


146         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

SECTION  73.    THE  SOCIAL  VALUE  OF  THE  REPRE- 
SENTATIVE ARTS :  PAINTING,  SCULPTURE. 

(1)  Primitive  tribes  have  distinguished  themselves  by, 

a.  High    faculty    for    making   pictorial    representations 
true  to  nature. 

b.  While  civilized  peoples  chose  their  art  motives  from 
art  in  general,  primitive  representative  art  is  limited 
almost  entirely  to  human  and  animal  forms. 

c.  Without  doubt,  primitive  man  applied  as  much  pa- 
tience,   labor,   enthusiasm   to   his   works   of   art,   as 
Raphael   and  Angelo   to   the   wall   paintings   in  the 
Sistine  Chapel  and  the  Vatican. 

d.  Our  canvas  paintings  have  their  analogies  in  Aus- 
tralia in  the  drawings  which  the  aborigines  make  on 
soot-blackened  pieces  of  hide. 

(a)  These  artists  endeavor  to  repeat  the  natural 
forms  and  movements  in  the  most  character- 
istic manner  possible. 

(&)  They  have  with  their  rude  tools  reached  a 
degree  of  success  in  this  which  the  most  cul- 
tivated moderns,  with  abundant  appliances  are 
never  able  to  attain. 

(c)  Such  success  has  been  brought  sharply  to  our 
comprehension  only  by  means  of  instantaneous 
photography. 

(2)  What   conditions   made   such   high  , artistic   achievements 
possible  in  so  low  a  culture? 

a.  Because  the  faculty  of  observation  and  handiness  of 
execution  are  the  two  indispensable  requisites  for  the 
primitive  life  of  the  chase. 

b.  Pictorial  talent  is  more  universally  diffused  among 
primitive  peoples  than  among  moderns  because  most 
primitives   have  the   faculty   of   observation   and   of 
execution  of  a  good  hunter. 

(a)  With  agricultural  people,  these  faculties  de- 
teriorate. 

(3)  The  scope  of  painting — includes  a  greater  variety  of  sub- 
jects than  any  other  art  save  poetry. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  147 

a.  Nothing  is  grander  than  this  work  well  done,  for  the 
whole  force  of  life-long  histories  is  delivered  in  one 
moment  of  time  to  the  vision. 

(a)  We  see  the  currents  of  affection  and  passion 
as  they  surge  on  in  full  volume. 

(4)  While  sculpture  is  the  most  laborious,  it  is  the  most  im- 
perishable of  the  arts. 

a.  Sculpture  must  maintain  a  certain  high  pitch,  or  like 
a  wounded  bird,  it  goes  fluttering  down  below  the 
horizon. 

(5)  In  the  Renaissance,  representative  art  at  its  height,  was 
the  queen  of  the  arts  and  incorporated  in  marble,  bronze, 
and  colors  the  religious  and  social  ideas  around  which  the 
burghers  rallied. 

a.  In  the  sight  of  which,  they  felt  as  one  people  and  as 
one  community. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  VII. 

Bascom,  Aesthetics,  Lects.  XV-XVII. 

Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Vol.  II,  Chs.  XI,  XII. 

Raymond,  Painting,  Sculpture  and  Architecture,  Ch.  XIII. 

SECTION  74.  THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE 
PRIMITIVE  DANCE  AND  ITS  MODERN  DEGENERA- 
TION. 

(1)  The  primitive  dance  is  the  most  immediate,  most  perfect, 
and  most  efficient  expression  of  the  primitive  aesthetic 
feeling. 

a.  The  great  social  power  which  the  living  picture,  the 
dance,  once  possessed,  can  hardly  be  guessed  to-day. 

b.  War   dances   and  love   dances   and   similar  mimetic 
dances  constitute  the  transition  to  the  drama. 

c.  To  distinguish  between  the  dance  and  drama  among 
primitive  peoples,  we  must  depend  on  an  external 
mark — the  presence  or  absence  of  rhythm. 

d.  The  social  significance  of  the  primitive  dance  lies  in 
the  effect  of  social  unification. 


148         University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  The  dances  of  the  hunting  peoples  are,  as  a 
rule,  mass  dances. 

(b)  Usually  executed  by  men  alone;  women  fur- 
nish musical  accompaniment. 

(c)  The  dancing  group  feels  and  acts  like  a  single 
organism. 

(d)  It  accustoms  a  number  of  men  who  in  their 
precarious   conditions   are   driven   hither   and 
thither  by   different   individual   needs,   to   act 
under  one  impulse  with  one  feeling  for  one 
object. 

(2)  The  degeneration  of  the  dance. 

a.  As  tribes  grow,  the  members  become  too  numerous 
to  join  in  a  common  dance ;  in  this  way  the  dance 
gradually  loses  its  socializing  function. 

b.  Leading  function  left  to  the  dance  is  that  of  facilita- 
ting the  mutual  approach  of  the  sexes. 

c.  The  ballet  of  civilization  with  its  repulsive  sprawling 
attitudes   and   distorted   perversions   of   nature   may 
at  best  but  satisfy  vulgar  curiosity. 

d.  The  modern  dance  presents  itself  chiefly  as  a  vestigal 
organ,  relatively  useless  in  consequence  of  changed 
conditions  of  life. 

(a)  Its  former  great  social  function  has  long  since 
been  transferred  to  the  other  arts. 

(b)  What  the  dance  was  to  the  social  life  of  hunt- 
ing peoples,  poetry  is  for  civilized  nations. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  VIII;  and  in  Thomas' 
Source  Book,  577-93. 

Hall,  Educational  Problems,  1:42-90. 

Worcester,  "Field  Sports  Among  the  Wild  Men  of  North- 
ern Luzon,"  Nat.  Geog.  M.  22:215-67. 

Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  XIV. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences. 


149 


SECTION  75.  THE  SOCIAL  POWER  OF  THE  IMAGINA- 
TION AND  FEELINGS'  AS  EXPRESSED  THROUGH 
POETRY  AND  ORATORY. 

(1)  Poetry — the  verbal  representation  of  external  or  internal 
phenomena    in    an    aesthetically    effective    form    for    an 
aesthetic  purpose. 

a.  All  poetry  comes  from  feeling  and  goes  to  feeling, 
and  therein  lies  the  mystery  of  its  creation  and  in- 
fluence. 

b.  The  lyrics,  generally,  of  hunting  peoples  betray  a 
thoroughly  egoistic  character;  the  poet  sings  of  his 
personal  sufferings  and  joys,  the  fortunes  of  his  fel- 
low-men rarely  elicit  a  sound  from  him. 

(2)  We   honor   poetry   as   the   most   effective   art:   borne  by 
mighty  geniuses,  poetry  rose  centuries  ago  to  uncontested 
predominance  in  Europe. 

a.  Modern  history  marks  whole  epochs  of  civilization 
with  the  name  of  some  poet  or  poem. 

b.  Poetry  has  more  than  once,  through  a  single  work, 
impressed  a  peculiar  stamp  upon  a  whole  generation. 

c.  Poetry  unites  men  (whom  the  interests  of  life  sepa- 
rate) by  invoking  the  same  feelings  in  all;  by  con- 
stantly repeating  the  innovation,  it  finally  produces 
a  lasting  unity  of  mood. 

d.  Poetry  accomplishes  more,  it  not  only  unites  men, 
it  elevates  them  also. 

(a)  Awakens  in  others  a  more  refined  and  richer 
emotional  life  than  that  which  practical  life 
has  matured  in  them. 

e.  Poetry  still  connects  succeeding  generations;  poster- 
ity thus  recognizes  the  voices  of  its  ancestors. 

/.  Poetry  can  as  readily  turn  its  power  to  evil  as  to 
good;  an  epidemic  to-day  of  lowest  cheap  romances 
which  needs  correction. 

(3)  Oratory  inclines  toward  a  fine  art  so  far  as  it  masters  the 
feelings  by  emotional  delivery ;  its  persuasive  power  enters 
with  the  quality  and  inflection  of  the  voice. 


150          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  There  is  hardly  any  man,  illiterate  or  educated,  so 
destitute  of  sensibility  that  is  not  moved  by  the  music 
of  eloquent  speech. 

b.  When  it  divests  men  of  their  peculiar  qualities  and 
affections  and  unites  a  vast  multitude,  giving  them 
but  one  heart,  one  pulse  and  one  voice,  then  it  be- 
comes a  great  social  power. 

c.  To  penetrate  the  souls  of  men  and  make  them  feel 
as  if  they  were  new  creatures,  conscious  of  new  pow- 
ers and  loftier  purposes,  this  is  the  social  function  of 
of  the  orator. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  IX. 

Mathews,  Oratory  and  Orators,  Ch.  I. 

Bascom,  Aesthetics,  Lect.  20. 

Alexander,  Poetry  and  the  Individual,  Ch.  II. 

Puffer,  Psychology  of  Beauty,  Ch.  VI. 

SECTION  76.     THE  SOCIAL  MEANING  OF  MUSIC. 

(1)  First  musical  instrument  of  mankind  was  without  doubt, 
the  voice. 

a.  Vocal  music  prevails  decidedly  over  instrumental  in 
the  lowest  stages  of  civilization. 

b.  In  lower  culture,  the  rhythm  with  its  strictly  observed 
regularity  appears  everywhere  as  against  harmony. 

(2)  Musical  endowment  of  different  peoples  appears  just  as 
capricious  and  independent  in  its  diversity  as  the  same  gift 
does  in  its  individual  manifestations. 

a.  Any  person  though  he  may  possess  very  little  general 
culture  may  receive  higher  musical  impressions  than 
the  cultivated  man. 

b.  Musical  talent  may  be  wholly  wanting  in  persons  of 
high  intellectual  and  even  artistic  capacity. 

c.  The  civilization  of  a  people  is  essentially  independent 
of    its    music ;    Beethoven's    instrumental    music    is 
farthest  from  real  life. 

d.  In  one  sense,  music  can  say :    "My  kingdom  is  not  of 
this  world." 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  151 

(3)   By  its  appeal  to  the  feelings,  music  has  a  great  social  in- 
fluence. 

a.  The   singing  together   of  the   members   of  a  group 
unites  them. 

b.  It  is  said  that  the  whole  people  in  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  sang  themselves  into  enthusiasm  for  the 
new  faith. 

c.  Above   all,   music   has   the   power   of   inflaming  the 
martial  spirit. 

(a)  In  Luther's  powerful  battle  song — the  melody 
strides  along  as  if  it  were  in  harness. 

(b)  No  army  has  yet  been  able  to  dispense  with 
martial  music. 

Suggested  Readings : 
*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  X. 
Hall,  Educational  Problems,  1 :91-135. 
Bascom,  Aesthetics,  Lect.  XIX. 

Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  IX. 
Puffer,  Psychology  of  Beauty,  Ch.  V. 

SECTION  77.  THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF 
AESTHETICS. 

(1)  Effort  is  artistic  which  through  its  whole  course  or  by  its 
result  arouses  aesthetic  feelings. 

a.  The  artistic  tendency  is  without  doubt  a  general  pos- 
session of  mankind. 

(2)  The  unity  of  primitive  art  stands  in  the  sharpest  contrast 
to  the  diversity  of  primitive  races ;  there  is  no  people  with- 
out art. 

a.  The  primitive  arts  affect  primitive  life  in  diversified 
ways. 

(a)  Ornamentation  pre-eminently  promotes  tech- 
nical skill. 

(b)  Poetry,   the   dance,   and  music  arise  because 
they    inflame    and    inspire  the  warriors — the 
bulwarks  of  the  social  against  hostile  assaults. 

(c)  But  the   most   efficient   and   most   beneficient 
effect  which  art  exercises  over  the  life  of  peo- 


152          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

pies  consists  in  the  strengthening  and  exten- 
sion of  the  social  bonds  to  which  it  contributes. 

(3)  The  social  significance  of  the  individual  arts  has  changed 
in  the  course  of  the  ages. 

at.  The  most  powerful  social  influence  among  the  hunt- 
ing peoples  was  vested  in  the  dance. 

b.  To  the  Greeks,  sculpture  incorporated  the  social  ideal 
in  its  most  effective  form. 

c.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  architecture  united  bodies  and 
souls  in  the  halls  of  its  gigantic  cathedrals. 

d.  In  the  Renaissance  painting*  spoke  a  language  that 
was    understood    by     all     the     civilized    peoples   of 
Europe. 

e.  In  the  modern  age,  the  relaxing  voice  of  poetry  re- 
sounds mightily  over  the  clash  of  arms  of  hostile  con- 
ditions and  peoples. 

(4)  The  social  significance  of  art  has  continuously  increased. 

Of.  The  educational  influence  which  it  has  exercised  on 
the  rudest  tribes  has  steadily  broadened  and  risen. 

b.  While  highest  social  function  of  primitive  art  con- 
sisted in  unification,  civilized  art  with  its  richer  and 
more   individually   executed   works,    serves   not   for 
unification  only,  but  primarily  for  the  elevation  of 
the  spirit. 

c.  As  science  enriches  and  elevates  our  intellectual  life, 
so  art  enriches  and  elevates  our  emotional  life. 

Suggested  Readings : 
*Grosse,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Ch.  XL 
Wright,  Practical  Sociology,  331-42. 
Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,   156-62. 
Day,  Science  of  Aesthetics,  Ch.  V. 
Raymond,  Education,  Art  and  Civics,  35-69. 
Dealey  and  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  142-48. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  IX. 
Alexander,  H.  B.,  Poetry  and  the  Individual,  Putnam :  1906, 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Macm: 

1906. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences. 


153 


Bascom,  J.,  Aesthetics,  Putnam :  1904. 

Day,  H.  N.,  Science  of  Aesthetics,  Putnam :  1902. 

Dealey  &  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 

Gross,  E-,  Beginnings  of  Art,  Appleton:  1900. 

Haddon,  A.  C.,  Evolution  in  Art,  Scott :  1895. 

Hall,  G.  $.,  Educational  Problems,  Appleton,  1911. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Macm: 
1908. 

Knight,  W.,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Scribner's :  1905. 

Mathews,  W.,  Oratory  and  Orators,  Griggs :  1896. 

Puffer,  E.  D.,  Psychology  of  Beauty,  Houghton,  Mifflin: 
1906. 

Ratzel,  F.,  History  of  Mankind,  Macm:  1896. 

Raymond,  G.  L.,  Education,  Art  and  Civics,  Funk  and  Wag- 
nails :  1911. 

Raymond,  G.  L.,  Painting,  Sculpture  and  Architecture,  Put- 
nam: 1909. 

Ribot,  Th.,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Scribner's:  1911. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Macm :  1910. 

Thomas,  W.  L,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Univ.  of 
Chi.  Pr.:  1909. 

Wright,  C.  D.,  Practical  Sociology,  Longmans :  1909. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  IX. 

1.  A  Study  of  Social  Hymns. 

2.  A  Study  of  Battle  Songs. 

3.  Sociological  Influence  of  Shakespeare. 

4.  Aesthetics  in  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

5.  The  Role  of  Imagination  in  Social  Progress. 

6.  A  Plot  for  a  Sociological  Play. 

7.  The  Influence  of  the  Drama  upon  Society. 

8.  The  Theater:  Its  Present  Status  and  Possibilities  as  a 

Social  Factor. 

9.  The  Art  Contributed  by  the  Immigrant. 
10.     Civic  Aesthetics  and  City  Planning. 


CHAPTER  X. 

INTELLECTUAL  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  78.      THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  BASIS  OF  IN- 
TELLECTUAL FACTORS. 

(1)  In  people  of  certain  type,  the  curiosity  impulse  may  be- 
come the  main  source  of  intellectual  energy  and  effort. 

a.  Rooted  in  it  are  man's  speculative  and  scientific  ten- 
dencies. 

b.  It  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal  roots  of 
science. 

(2)  The  native  excitant  of  the  curiosity  impulse  would  seem 
to  be  any  object  similar  to,  yet  perceptibly  different  from 
familiar  things  habitually  noticed. 

a.  A  small  element  of  the  strange  or  unusual  may  ex- 
cite curiosity  although  a  pronounced  degree  of  it 
tends  to  excite  fear  except  in  the  strongest  minds. 

(3)  The  free  and  effective  operation  of  the  speculative  and 
scientific  tendencies  in  any  society  is  the  gauge  of  that 
society's  position  in  the  scale  of  civilization. 

a.  It  is  also  the  principal  condition  of  the  progress  of 
a  people  in  all  that  constitutes  civilization. 

(4)  Knowledge  as  an  achievement  by  itself  calls  for  a  going 
out  in  thought  as  far  as  p<  ssible  from  the  thinker's  per- 
sonal function. 

a.  Calls  for  a  discovering  of  the  content  and  meaning 
of  the  whole  life  process,  within  which  the  thinker 
occupies  a  space. 

b.  One  is  not  a  well-working  socius  unless  he  has  the 
knowledge  necessary  to  play  his   own  part  in  the 
social  process. 

(5)  Two  kinds  of  valuations  which  we  actually  pass  upon  the 
intellectual  factor  in  conduct. 

155 


156          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Knowledge  as  a  means  of  maintaining  the  standard 
of  life — this  is  in  practical  demand. 

b.  Knowledge  as  a  vision  of  the  meaning  of  life  and  of 
what  the  standard  of  life  should  be — needed  by  every- 
one, but  in  far  less  general  demand. 

c.  Hence  our  knowledge  interest  tends  to  scale  up  and 
down  from  the  meaning  of  the  nearest  details  of  our 
individual  lives,  at  one  extreme,  to  the  largest  corre- 
lation of  the  total  life-process,  past,  present  and  fu- 
ture at  the  other. 

Suggested  Readings: 
*McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  57,  315. 
Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  VI. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  Ill,  Ch.  V. 
Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotion,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  XL 
Small,  General  Sociology,  461-64. 
Dealey  &  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  148-58. 

SECTION  79.     THE  EARLIEST  SIGNS  OF  THE  PRES- 
ENCE OF  MIND. 

(1)  What  are  the  most  general  classes  of  expressive  signs  by 
which  living  beings  that  have  minds  manifest  to  us  their 
mental  life? 

(2)  The   first   type  of  the  signs   of  mind  are   signs   of   dis- 
criminating sensitiveness  of  two  kinds : 

a.  The  signs  of  feeling,  i.  e.,  of  satisfaction  and  dis- 
satisfaction. 

(a)  In  the  young  child,  we  meet  with  reactions  of 
fear,  of  anger. 

(b)  The  forms  that  have  life  seem  to  show  signs 
of  more  or  less  immediately  valuing  their  own 
state  or  their  own  relation  to  their  environ- 
ment. 

b.  Not  simply  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction 
but  a  tendency  to  react  in  such  a  way  to  the  outside 
world  as  seems  to  show  that  they  discriminate  be- 
tween these  various  classes  of  physical  facts. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  157 

(a)  The  reactions  tend  to  be  different  for  different 
stimuli,  and  same  for  same  stimuli. 

(b)  Hence  a  pupil  suffering  from  a  slight  deaf- 
ness may  be  slow  in  responding,  and  thus  be 
unjustly  accused  of  stupidity. 

c.  The  signs  of  mental  life  may  thus  be  misinterpreted ; 
what  is  due  to  a  defect  of  sense  organs  is  judged  as 
a  defect  of  the  mind. 

(3)  The  second  type  of  the  signs  of  mind  are  the  signs  of 
docility. 

a.  Every  being  with  a  mind  shows  a  disposition  to  be 
determined  in  its  present  action  by  what  has  hap- 
pened to  it  in  the  past,  i.  e.,  learns  by  experience. 

b.  Intelligent  activities  are  always  due,  in  creatures  like 
ourselves,  to  the    influence    of    former    experiences 
upon  present  consciousness  and  ways  of  acting. 

(4)  The  third  type  of  signs  of  mind  are  the  signs  of  mental 
initiative. 

a.  These  signs  are  suggested  by  such  variations  of  in- 
telligent habits  as  cannot  readily  be  explained  either 
by  the  present  sense  disturbances  or  by  the  former 
experiences  and  habits  of  the  organism  in  question. 

b.  The  particular  reaction  seems  to  be  rather  directly 
due  not  to  the  disturbance  itself,  but  to  something 
initiated  within  the  organism. 

c.  The  fitting  response  seems  often  to  partake  of  the 
nature  of  a  thoughtful  invention — the  basis  of  social 
progress. 

Suggested  Readings : 
*Royce,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  Ch.  II. 
Dewey,  in  Thomas'  Source  Book,  173-86. 
Boas,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  Ch.  I. 
Baldwin,  Mental  Development,   161-275. 
Hobhouse,  Mind  in  Evolution,  1-10. 

SECTION  80.      THE  MIND  OF  PRIMITIVE  MAN. 

(1)  A  delusion  probably  that  the  white  race  has  one  order  of 
mind  and  that  the  black  and  yellow  races  have  another. 


158          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  The   fact  that  one  race    (the  white,  e.  g.)   has  ad- 
vanced further  in  culture  does  not  necessarily  imply 
a  different  order  of  brain. 

(a)  It  may  mean  that  social  arrangements  have 
been  more  favorable  to  the  operations  of  the 
mind  in  one  case  than  in  the  other. 

b.  The  instinct  to  belittle  outsiders  perhaps  at  the  bottom 
of  the  delusion ;  no  race  views  another  race  with  that 
generosity  with  which  it  views  itself. 

(a)  It  may  be  said  that  the  existence  of  a  social 
group  depends  on  its  taking  an  exaggerated 
view  of  its  own  importance. 

(2)  Are  the  characteristic  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  e.  g., 
perception,  memory,  inhibition,  abstraction,  absent  or 
noticeably  weak  in  the  primitive  races? 

a.  Need  not  dwell  on  acuteness  of  sense — perceptions — 
it  is  generally  allowed  that  the  savages  have  greater 
acuity  of  the  senses  than  the  white  man. 

b.  The  memory  of  the  lower  races  is  quite  as  good  as 
that  of  the  higher. 

(a)  Perhaps  no  one  could  claim  that  the  modern 
scientist  has  a  better  memory  than  the  bard 
of  the  Homeric  period. 

c.  Inhibition — The  American    Indian    makes  inhibition 
the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  his  system  of  edu- 
cation. 

(a)  From  the  day  of   his  birth  when  the  ice  is 
broken  to  give  him  a  cold  plunge  and  thus 
start  the  toughening  process  till  he  dies  with- 
out   groan    under    torture — a    series    of    in- 
hibitions. 

(b)  Savage  inhibits  in  case  of  taboo:  the  Eskimo, 
though  starving  will  not  touch  the  sacred  seal 
basking  before  his  hut. 

d.  Power  of  abstraction — the  degree  to  which  abstrac- 
tion is  employed  in  the  activities  of  a  group  depends 
upon  the  complexities  of  the  activities. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  159 

(a)  When   science   is   taught   in  the   schools   and 
when  thought  is   a  profession,  then  abstract 
modes  of  thought  are  forced  on  the  mind. 

(b)  The  proverb  is  a  form  of  abstraction  practiced 
by  all  primitive  races. 

(c)  Mechanical  inventions   represent  high  power 
of  abstraction;  primitive  man  invents. 

(d)  While  modern  inventions  are  magnificent  yet 
when  we  consider  the  precedents  and  accumu- 
lated knowledge  with  which  the  modern  in- 
vestigator works  and  the  resourcelessness  of 
primitive  man  in  materials  and  ideas,  the  bow 
and  arrow  may  be  considered  the  most  won- 
derful invention  in  the  world. 

(3)   If  the  order  of  the  mind  of  all  races  is  relatively  the  same 
then  it  becomes  possible  to  raise  all  mankind  through  edu- 
cation to  our  highest  levels. 
Suggested  Readings : 

Thomas,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,   155-73. 

Mason,  Origins  of  Inventions,  13-32. 

Boas,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  Ch.  IV. 

Dewey,    "Interpretation    of    Savage    Mind,"    Psych.    Rev., 
9:217-30,  and  in  Thomas'  Source  Book,  173-86. 

Brinton,  Basis  of  Human  Relations,  Ch.  I. 

Dealey   and    Ward,    Text-book   of    Sociology,    Chs.    XVII, 
XVIII. 

SECTION  81.    THE  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  AN  ALPHABET. 

( 1 )  We  start  with  man  as  a  sign  or  symbol-maker. 

a.  On  fragments  of  bone,  horn  and  other  materials  the 
savage  hunter  of  prehistoric  periods  using  pointed 
pieces  of  flint  drew  outlines  of  himself  and  of  the 
animals  he  pursued. 
b.  The  pictograph  is  the  parent  of  the  alphabet. 

(2)  Four  well-marked  stages  of  the  primitive  forms  of  which 
all  alphabets  are  the  abbreviated  descendants. 

a.  The  mnemonic,  or  memory-aiding,  when  some  tangi- 
ble object  is  used  as  a  message,  or  for  record,  be- 


160          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

tween  people  at  a  distance,  and  also  for  the  purpose 
of  accrediting  the  messenger. 

b.  The   pictorial — in   which   a   picture   of   the   thing   is 
given,  whereby  at  a  glance  it  tells  its  own  story. 

c.  The  ideographic — in  which  the  picture  becomes  repre- 
sentative,   represents    an   idea,    is    converted    into   a 
symbol. 

d.  The  phonetic — in  which  the  picture  becomes  a  phono- 
gram,   or    sound — repeating    sign — the    phonogram 
may  be  one  of  three  types : 

(a)  Verbal, — a  sound-sign  for  a  whole  word. 

(b)  Syllabic, — a  sound-sign  for  each  syllable. 
(c)  Alphabetic, — a  sound-sign  for  each  letter. 

(3)  In  the  alphabetic  stage,  the  sign  as  eye-picture  suggests 
the  sound,  independent  of  the  meaning  of  the  sound. 

a.  It  was  very  long  before  it  dawned  upon  men  that 
all  the  words  which  men  utter  are  expressed  by  a 
few  sounds. 

b.  It  was  in  the  passage  from  the  ideographic  to  the 
alphabetic  stage  whereby  constant  signs  are  chosen 
to  stand  for  constant  sounds  that  the  progress  of  the 
human  race  was  assured. 

(a)  This  means  the  birth  of  an  alphabet,  one  of 
the  most  momentous  triumphs  of  the  human 
mind. 

(b)  Only  thereby  was  the  preservation  of  all  that 
is  of  abiding  value   made   possible. 

(4)  Of   two  hundred   and  fifty   alphabets   which   have   come 
into  being  since  prehistoric  man,  some  fifty  have  survived. 

a.  Half  of  these  are  found  in  India,  locally  used. 

b.  The  rest  are,  in  the  main,  variations  of  three  scripts : 
Chinese,   Arabic,   Roman. 

c.  An  outlook  on  the  world's  course  indicates  that  it 
is  with  the  Roman,  as  the  vehicle  of  culture  of  the 
most  advancing  races  that  there  lies  the  maintenance 
of  supremacy  and  the  extension  of  its  sway. 

(5)  Great  debt  is  due  him  who  invented  the  few  numerals,  the 
relative  places  of  which  serve  the  purpose  of  recording 
the  commerce  of  the  world. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  161 

a.  Greater  admiration  is  due  him  who  devised  the 
nought  or  cipher,  without  which  the  labor  of  cal- 
culating and  recording  would  have  taxed  human 
energy  beyond  endurance. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Clodd,  The  Story  of  the  Alphabet,  Chs.  II,  III. 
Huey,  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading,  Chs.  X,  XI. 
Judd,  Genetic  Psychology,  Ch.  VII. 

Abbott,   Evolution  of   the   Forms   of   Our  Alphabet,   Mod. 
Philol,  2:307-19. 

SECTION  82.     LITERATURE  AS  AN  AUTOBIOGRAPHY 
OF  CIVILIZATION. 

( 1 )  Literature  may  be  considered  as  the  best  expression  of  the 
best  thought  reduced  to  writing. 

a.  Its  various  forms  are  the  result  of  race  peculiarities 
or  of  diverse  individual  temperaments,  or  of  political 
circumstances  securing  the  predominance  of  one  so- 
cial class  which  is  thus  enabled  to  propagate  its  ideas 
and  sentiments. 

(2)  In  early  stages  of  society,  the  classes  which  first  attain  a 
distinct   literacy   utterance   are   priests   who   compile   the 
chronicles  of  tribal  religious  development,  or  rhapsodists 
\vho  celebrate  the  prowess  of  tribal  chiefs. 

a.  As  man  feels  before  he  reasons,  so  poetry  generally 
precedes  prose. 

(a)  Hence  sacred  books  and  war-songs  are  every- 
where the  earliest  literacy  monuments. 

(b)  The   epical   record   of   the   past   was    supple- 
mented by  the  lyrical  record  of  contemporary 
events. 

(3)  Prose  of  any  permanent  value  first  showed  itself  in  the 
form  of  oratory. 

a.  The   development   of   abstract    reasoning   tended   to 
deprive   poetry   of   its   ornament   and   to   provide   a 
simpler  and  more  accurate  instrument. 

b.  The  evolution  of  literature  is  completed  in  Greece. 


162          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  No  new  form  has  been  invented  since  the  days 
of  Plato. 

(b)  Roughly    speaking,    all    subsequent   literature 
has  been  imitative  of  form. 

(4)  For  five  centuries  during  the  Dark  Ages,  not  a  single 
literary  masterpiece  was  produced. 

(5)  From  the  llth  to  14th  century,  France  was  the  center  of 
intellectual  life  in  Europe. 

a.  Then  developed  great  literary  personalities  in  Italy, 
England,  and  Germany,  together  with  the  beginnings 
of  philosophic  and  scientific  writings. 

(6)  At  present,  literature  is  in  a  state  of  flux ;  it  is  less  national 
than  formerly  and  yet  fails  of  being  cosmopolitan. 

a.  Literature,  as  such,  suffers  from  the  competition  of 
the  newspaper  press. 

b.  A  large  and  growing  body  of  scientific  and  philo- 
sophic literature  of  great  social  value  is  one  of  the 
striking  signs   of  the  times   in  considering  modern 
world  literature  as  an  autobiography  of  civilization. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Moulton,  World  Literature  and  Its  Place  in  General  Cul- 
ture, 1-53,  439-65. 

Ross,  Changing  America,  Ch.  VII. 

Everett,  "Literature  and  Statesmanship,"  Putnam's,  2 :222-8. 

Howell's,  "Commercialization  of  Literature,"  Harper's,  112: 
472-5. 

SECTION  83.    THE  MODERN  NEWSPAPER  AS  AN  IN- 
TELLECTUAL FACTOR. 

(1)  The   newspaper  cannot  be  expected  to  remain  dignified 
and  serious,  now  that  it  caters  so  largely  to  the  masses 
instead  of,  as  formerly,  to  the  professional  and  business 
classes. 

a.  To  interest  errand-boy,  factory-girl,  and  raw  immi- 
grant, it  had  to  become  spicy,  amusing,  emotional. 

(2)  The  capitalist-owner  supplants  the  editor-owner. 

a.  Today,  a  million  dollars  is  necessary  to  outfit  a  metro- 
politan newspaper. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  163 

b.  The  editor  is  no  longer  the  owner,  for  he  has  not, 
and  cannot  command,  the  capital  needed. 

c.  The  editor  of  the  type  of  Greeley  or  Dana  who  owns 
his  paper  and  makes  it  the  projection  of  his  character 
and  ideals  is  rare. 

d.  The  editors  now  are  hired;  they  may  put  no  more 
of  their  conscience  into  the  paper  than  comports  with 
getting  financial  returns  from  the  investment. 

e.  The  modern  metropolitan  paper  is  likely  to  become  a 
factory  where  ink  and  brains  are  so  applied  to  white 
paper  as  to  turn  out  the  largest  possible  marketable 
product. 

(3)  Advertising  censors  the  news. 

a.  The  dissemination  of  news  and  the  selling  of  pub- 
licity are  two  essentially  distinct  functions,  but  car- 
ried on  by  the  same  agency. 

(a)  One  is  a  matter  of  democracy;  the  other,  of 
commerce. 

b.  Every  year  the  sale  of  advertising  yields  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  total  receipts;  the  subscribers,  a 
smaller. 

(a)  To-day,  advertising  yields  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  earnings  of  the  daily  newspaper. 

(b)  In  the  larger  dailies,  the  receipts  from  adver- 
tisers are  several  times  the  receipts  from  the 
readers,   in  some  cases  constituting  90%   of 
the  total  revenues. 

(c)  Hence,  the  advertiser  supports  the  newspaper. 

c.  "He  who  pays  the  piper,  calls  the  tune." 

d.  When  news-columns  and  editorial  page  become  a 
mere   incident  in  the   profitable  sale   of  mercantile 
publicity,  it  is  strictly  "business-like"  to  let  the  big 
advertisers  censor  both. 

(4)  The  increasing  herd  of  "sacred  cows." 

a.  Corporations  who  are  big  advertisers  are  jocularly 
referred  to  in  some  editorial  offices  as  "sacred  cows." 


164          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(a)  The  editors  and  sub-editors  are  under  instruc- 
tions not  to  print  anything  damaging  to  these 
concerns. 

b.  Nearly  every  form  of  privilege  is  found  in  the  herd 
of  "sacred  cows"  venerated  by  a  part  of  the  daily 
press. 

(5)  The   magnate-owner   may   make   his   newspaper — on   the 
sly — an   instrument   for  coloring  certain   kinds   of  news, 
or  for  fostering  certain  impressions  or  prejudices. 

(6)  What  is  needed  is  a  broader  avenue  to  the  public  mind. 

a.  Needed :  more  newspapers  that  ignore  the  threats  of 
big  advertisers  or  powerful  interests,  and  give  the 
truth  about  police  protection  to  vice,  corporate  tax- 
dodging,  the  non-enforcement  of  social  laws,  etc. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ross,  Changing  America,  Ch.  VII. 

Rogers,  The  American  Newspaper,  Ch.  I. 

An  Independent  Journalist,  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociol.,  15:321- 

34. 

Shuman,  Practical  Journalism,  Ch.  I.  ff. 
Thomas,   "The   Psychology  of  Yellow  Journalism,"   Amer. 
Mag.,  March,  1908. 

SECTION   84.     SOCIOLOGICAL  ASPECTS   OF   EDUCA- 
TION. 

(1)  The  sharing  by  a  child  in  the  race's  life  and  in  racial 
experience  is  education  as  viewed  by  sociology. 

a.  The  child  begins  life  in  ignorance  of  himself  and  of 
his  world;  he  begins  where  primitive  man  began. 

b.  The  experience  of  the  human  race  has  been  accumu- 
lating; into  this  racial  experience  the  child  is  born 
and  from  it  he  receives  the  advantages  of  the  cen- 
turies. 

c.  The  first  three  years  of  a  child's  life  are  spent  in 
getting  possession  of  his  body;  the  years  from  3  to 
26  or  more  are  the  special  period  of  adjustment  to 
his  spiritual  environment. 

(2)  What  are  the  elements  of  the  spiritual  environment? 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  165 

a.  The    intellectual,    or   what   is    known,    is    commonly 
called  Science. 

(a)  Science  is  a  product  of  the  effort  of  the  mind 
to  know  the  truth  concerning  reality. 

(b)  No   student  can   attain  the  universal   knowl- 
edge which  the  race  has  discovered ;  but  he  can 
know  enough  truth  to  free  him  from  super- 
stition,  to   keep   his   mind   open,   to   get   the 
message  of  courage,  that  comes  from  the  sci- 
entific achievements  of  the  race. 

b.  The  emotional,  or  what  is  felt,  may  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  religion. 

(a)  The  child  who  early  learns  to  see  God  and  to 
feel  inspired  in  the  presence  of  His  handiwork, 
will  hate  ugliness,  the  imperfect,  meanness, 
littleness. 

c.  The  volitional, — the   race  has  been  active,  original, 
and   energetic   in   moulding   the   circumstances   into 
which  it  was  naturally  cast. 

(a)  The  volitional  environment  is  what  man  has 
achieved;  it  is  the  monument  to  the  will  of 
man. 

(3)   What  are  the  social  effects  of  reproducing  the  spiritual 
environment  of  the  race? 

a.  The  conservation  of  the  past — the  fragments  of  past 
achievements  are  gathered  up  that  nothing  be  lost. 

(a)  Education  preserves  the  past  as  the  basis 
upon  which  to  build  the  more  stately  mansions 
of  human  welfare. 

b.  The  preservation  of  the  present, — by  developing  self- 
control  in  the  individual  members  of  society  and  by 
binding  their  affections  to  human  institutions. 

c.  The    progress    of    the    future, — education    actively 
initiates. 

(a)  Progress  in  knowledge  of  whatever  kind  must 
always  come  only   from  him  who  is  already 
familiar  with  what  has  been  done  in  his  field. 

(b)  The   scientist   is   daring,   making   progress   a 
fact. 


166          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Horne,  The  Philosophy  of  Education,  Chs.  IV,  V. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  IV,  Ch.  IV. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  VIII. 
Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  III. 
Addams,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  Ch.  VI. 
Libby,  "The  Socialization  of  the  College,"  Pop.  Sci.  Mon., 
Jan.,  1913,  76-84. 

SECTION  85.    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  AND  ITS 
MOST  DIFFICULT  PROBLEM. 

(1)  In  all   schools   in  the   United   States— 20,000,000   pupils 
(1911). 

a.  18,400,000  in  the  elementary  schools;  1,110,000  pupils 
in  the  high  schools ;  180,000,  in  colleges  and  universi- 
ties; 65,000,  in  the  professional  schools. 

b.  In  the  public  schools  are  524,000  teachers  (1910)- 
114,000  men  and  410,000  women. 

c.  Each  year,  $425,000,000  is  turned  over  to  the  public 
school  system. 

(a)  Each  year  the  nation  spends  upon  the  public 
schools  a  sum  sufficient  to  construct  a  Panama 
Canal. 

(b)  This  great  school  system  is  the  greatest  public 
investment  in  the  United  States. 

(2)  Four-fifths  of  the  army  of  children  who  enter  American 
schools  never  go  beyond  the  elementary  grades. 

a.  The  school  grows  irksome,  the  dollar  calls,  the  home 
commands,  the  child  is  anxious,  and  leaves  at  the 
end  or  during  the  elementary  course. 

b.  For  each  1,000  children  in  the  first  grade,  263  in  the 
eighth,  and  only  56  in  the  twelfth. 

(a)  73  children  in  each   100  never  complete  the 
course  in  the  elementary  schools. 

(b)  94  children  in  each  100  never  reach  the  end  of 
the  high  school. 

c.  Any  serious  attempt  to  use  the  public  school  system 
as  a  vehicle  for  social  education,  must  therefore  be 
directed,  primarily,  toward  the  elementary  grades. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  167 

(3)  Through  the  medium  of  the  public  schools,  the  possibility 
of   developing  a   system   of   social   ideals   in  the  general 
population  is  far  greater  than  by  means  of  newspapers, 
magazines,  labor  unions,  etc. 

a.  Primarily  because  the  public  school  reaches  people 
while  they  are  young  and  in  the  formative  stage. 

(4)  The  most  difficult  problem  confronting  the  schools  is  the 
teaching  of  a  sense  of  social  responsibility. 

a.  To  learn  the  Constitution  verbatim  goes  a  very  little 
way  towards  making  of  children  good  citizens. 

b.  If  the  school  is  to  perform  its  social  function,  it  must 
introduce  instruction  in  social  problems  in  the  grades. 

c.  The  schools  must  overcome  the  ignorance  regarding 
personal   standards,   the   failure   to   perform   intelli- 
gently parental  duties,  the  lack  of  an  intelligent  feel- 
ing of  social  responsibility. 

d.  It  is  anti-social  to  pay  low  wages,  and  the  school 
children  should  know  it. 

e.  It  is  anti-social  to  maintain  unhygienic  living  con- 
ditions, and  the  children  should  realize  it. 

/.  The  working  life  should  be  long  and  joyous  and  the 
schools  should  make  this  fact  a  part  of  the  conscious- 
ness of  every  child. 

g.  In  these  teachings,  the  most  fundamental  work  can 
be  done  by  the  elementary  schools, — for  they  reach 
all  the  people,  and  reach  them  while  they  are  im- 
pressionable children. 
Suggested  Readings : 

*Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  XV. 
Beard,  American  City  Government,  Ch.  XII. 
Home,  Idealism  in  Education,  Ch.  I. 
Button,  Social  Phases  of  Education,  3-39. 
Scott,  Social  Education,  Ch.  I. 

SECTION  86.    THE  ROLE  OF  INTELLECT  IN  SOCIAL 
LIFE:  A  SUMMARY. 

(1)   A  distinctive  character  of  our  human  social  life  is  due 
to  the  modifying  influence  of  intellectual  elements. 


168          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  The   intellect   directs   and   guides   the    social    forces 
much  as  the  rudder  guides  a  ship. 

b.  The  intellect  modifies  the  instincts  profoundly  through 
substituting  in  their  places,  habits  which  at  least  in 
later  life  become  as  strong  as  any  of  the  original 
activities. 

c.  Intellect  finally  comes  to  direct  and  control  not  only 
the  forces  of  physical  nature  but  also  the  impulses 
and    feelings  of  human  nature. 

(2)  Civilization  has  been  built  up  largely  through  invention 
and  discovery. 

a.  Intellectual  perceptions  of  certain  ways  in  which 
advantages  may  be  realized  and  disadvantages  over- 
come have  been  at  the  basis  of  that  progressive  mas- 
tery over  nature  which  is  synonymous  with  progress. 

(3)  Role   of   the   intellect   is   seen   chiefly   in   social   progrccc 
rather  than  in  social  organization. 

a.  Social  organization  at  any  particular  moment  is  large- 
ly a  matter  of  instinct. 

b.  The  intellect  is  a  superior  instrument  of  adjustment 
to  the  new. 

c.  The  apparent  antagonism  between  intellect  and  social 
development  springs  from  the  fact  that  the  intellect 
is  a  dynamic  agent  in  society. 

(a)  It  is  concerned  more  with  social  changes  while 
the  instincts  and  feelings  are  concerned  more 
with  maintaining  the  social  order. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XL 

Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  XIII. 

James,  Psychology  (briefer  course),  Ch.  XII. 

Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  Ch.  X. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  X. 
Addams,  J.,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  Macm. :  1907. 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Mental  Development,  Macm. :  1906. 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Macm. : 

1906. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm. :  1905. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  169 

Boas,  F.,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  Macm. :  1911. 

Brinton,  D.,  The  Basis  of  Human  Relations,  Putnam:  1902. 

Clodd,  E.,  The  Story  of  the  Alphabet,  Appleton:  1901. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  Scribner's :  1909. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett :  1909. 

Dealey  and  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  Macm. :  1905. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ap- 
pleton:  1912. 

Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  Mind  in  Evolution,  Macm.:  1901. 

Home,  H.  H.,  The  Philosophy  of  Education,  Macm. :  1907. 

Huey,  E.   B.,  The   Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading, 
Macm.:  1908. 

James,  Wm.,  Psychology  (briefer  course),  Holt:  1910. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  Genetic  Psychology,  Appleton:  1909. 

Major,  D.  R.,  First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth,  Macm. :  1906. 

Mason,  O.  T.,  Origins  of  Inventions,  Scribner's :   1910. 

McDougall,  Wm.,  Social  Psychology,  Luce:   1909. 

Moulton,  R.  G.,  World  Literature  and  its  Place  in  General 
Culture,  Macm.:  1911. 

Nearing,   Scott,   Social  Adjustment,  Macm.:  1911. 

Ribot,  Th.,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Scribner's:  1911. 

Rogers,  A.  K.,  History  of  Philosophy,  Macm.:  1911. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Changing  America,  Century:  1912. 

Royce,  J.,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  Macm. :   1908. 

Small,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Univ.  of  Chi.  Pr. :  1905. 

Swift,  E.  J.,  Mind  in  the  Making,  Scribner's :  1908. 

Thomas,  W.  L,  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Univ.  of 
Chi.  Pr. :  1909. 
Suggested  Topics  for  Investigations  for  Chapter  X. 

1.  The  Place  of  Sociology  in  Education. 

2.  History  of  Printing. 

3.  Origin  and  Development  of  Five  American  Universities. 

4.  A  Complete  History  of  your  own  College. 

5.  From  Franklin  to  Burleson. 

6.  Social  Influences  of  the  Newspaper. 

7.  History  of  the  Telephone  as  a  Means  of  Communication. 

8.  Argument  for  the  Municipal  Newspaper. 

9.  Influence  of  the  Novel  in  Social  Progress. 
10.  Vocational  Guidance  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  ASSOCIATION AL  FACTORS  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  87.    THE  GREGARIOUS  INSTINCT. 

(1)  Displayed  by  many  species  of  animals. 

a.  Its  operation  in  its  simplest  form  implies  none  of  the 
higher    qualities    of    mind,    neither    sympathy    nor 
capacity  for  mutual  aid. 

b.  South  African  ox  displays  no  affection  for  his  fel- 
lows so  long  as  he  is  among  them ;  but  if  he  becomes 
separated  from  the  herd,  he  displays  extreme  distress 
until  he  rejoins  it. 

c.  In  its  simplicity,  it  is  a  mere  uneasiness  in  isolation 
from  the  herd;  its  utility  to  animals  liable  to  attack 
is  obvious. 

d.  The  instinct  is  commonly  strongly  confirmed  by  habit, 
the  individual  is  born  into  a  society,  grows  up  in  it, 
the  being  with  others  becomes  a  habit  deeply  rooted 
in  the  instinct. 

(2)  To  the  normal  man,  to  be  alone  is  the  greatest  torture. 

a.  Solitary  confinement  is  by  many  regarded  as  a  mode 
of    torture    too    cruel    and    unnatural    for    civilized 
countries. 

b.  For  all  but  a  few  exceptional  and  generally  highly 
cultivated   persons,    the    one    essential    condition    of 
recreation  is  being  one  of  a  crowd. 

c.  Normal,  daily  recreation  of  the  population  of  our 
towns  is  to  walk  up  and  down  the  streets  in  the 
evening  where  the  throng  is  densest. 

(3)  The  gregarious  instinct  marks  off  species  and  races,  is  the 
basis    of    class    distinctions,    of    innumerable    forms    of 
alliance. 

a.  Conduct  toward  those  whom  we  feel  to  be  most  like 
ourselves  is  instinctively  and  rationally  different  from 

171 


172  University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

our   conduct   toward   those   appearing  to  be   unlike 
ourselves. 

b.  The  working-man  joins  in  a  strike  of  which  he  does 
not  approve  rather  than  cut  himself  off  from  his 
fellows, 

(4)  In  early  times  when  population  was  scanty,  the  gregarious 
impulse  played  an  important  part  in  social  evolution  by 
keeping  people  together. 

a.  Thereby  occasioning  the  need  for  social  laws  and  in- 
stitutions as  well  as  providing  the  conditions  of 
aggregation  in  which  alone  the  higher  evolution  of 
the  social  attributes  was  possible. 

(5)  When  reflection  enters  in  and  points  out  the  relation  of 
the  gregarious  instinct  to  the  welfare  of  society,  then  the 
individual  may  consciously  strive  for  the  welfare  of  others. 

Suggested  Readings : 

McDougall,   Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XII. 

Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotions,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  VIII. 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  III. 

Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  118-25. 

SECTION  88.     SYMPATHY:  AN  INSTRUMENT  OF  SO- 
CIAL PROGRESS. 

(1)  The  fundamental  and  primitive  form  of  sympathy  is 
exactly  what  the  word  implies — a  suffering  with,  the  ex- 
periencing of  any  feeling  when  and  because  we  observe  in 
other  persons  the  expression  of  that  feeling. 

a.  Sympathetic  induction  of  emotion  in  the  most  un- 
mistakable   fashion   by   all   gregarious   animals. 

b.  When  we  hear  a  scream  of  terror,  we  suffer  a  pang 
of  fear  though  we  know  nothing  of  the  cause  of  the 
scream  of  terror. 

c.  When  a   speaker  introduces   skillfully  an  emotional 
quality  in  his  voice,  a  similar  feeling  is  aroused  in  the 
listener,  even  though  the  speaker  may  be  talking  in 
an  unknown  tongue. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  173 

d.  A  sufferer's  expression  of  pain  may  induce  so  lively 
a  distress  in  the  onlooker  as  to  incapacitate  him  for 
giving  help. 

(2)  The  constant  appeal  in  any  reform  movement  in  human 
society  is  to  the  sympathies. 

a.  Since   conscious   changes   in   human   society   can   be 
satisfactorily  brought  about  only  by  the  enlistment  of 
the  feelings  upon  the  side  of  the  change. 

b.  The  social  function  of  sympathy  is  to  serve  as  a  sort 
of  social  cement ;  common  feelings  serve  to  re-inforce 
and  to  fix  common  activities. 

c.  It  is  successful  enlistment  of  the  sympathies  in  behalf 
of  reformative  changes  which  has  accomplished  much 
of  the  social  progress  of  the  last  two  centuries. 

d.  As  a  concrete  expression  of  sympathy  in  human  so- 
ciety, the  working  of  charity  at  its  best  will  illustrate 
the  function  of  sympathy. 

(3)  Sympathy  is  the  feeling  side  of  all  altruistic  activities  in 
society. 

a.  No  complex  and  stable  types  of  co-operation  can  be 
developed,  so  far  as  is  known,  upon  a  basis  of  self- 
interest  alone. 

b.  It  is  especially  the  higher  forms  of  such  sympathetic 
elements  as  humanitarian  sentiment  and  ethical  love 
which  have  been  definitely  progressive  forces  in  man's 
social  life. 

(4)  Sympathy  is  a  mental  element  which  may  be  described  as 
the  primitive  social  cement,  it  develops  with  the  expanding 
process  of  life  into  one  of  the  chief  instruments  for  main- 
taining social  solidarity  and  also  for  bringing  about  pro- 
gressive changes. 

a.  It  would  seem  that  its  place  in  developed  social  life 
can  be  regarded  as  subordinate  only  to  that  of 
reason. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XIV. 
Smith,   Adam,   in   Carver,   Sociology  and   Social   Progress, 
Ch.  XVI. 


174          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Ribot,  Psychology  of  Emotions,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  IV. 

McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  VI. 

Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  IV. 

SECTION  89.     IMITATION:    AN  AGENT  OF  CONSER- 
VATION AND  OF  PROGRESS. 

(1)  The  child  gets  the  bulk  of  his  ideas,  habits,  ideals,  and 
purposes  by  imitating  the  copy  in  the  way  of  activities, 
ideals,  and  character  furnished  within  the  family  circle. 

a.  So  rapidly  does  this  imitative  process  go  on  that  by 
the  time  the  eighth  year  is  reached  it  seems  probable 
that  the   foundation  lines   of  the  child's  social  and 
moral  character  are  laid. 

b.  This  imitative  process  preserves  the  continuity  of  the 
social  environment  and  is  a  vast  conservative  force 
in  society. 

c.  Only  by  imitation  that  each  generation  takes  up  and 
makes   its   own   the   customs   and   traditions   of   the 
preceding  generation. 

d.  Parents  set  children  copies  when  the  children's  habits 
are  unformed  and  when  they  lack  all  means  of  test 
or  criticism. 

e.  More  custom  imitation  in  human  than  in  the  lower 
species. 

(a)  There  the  young  are  well  equipped  with  in- 
stincts at  birth,  leave  the  parent  relatively 
early ;  little  chance  for  imitation  of  the  parent. 

(2)  A  tendency  for  practices  to  continue  by  custom  imitation 
long  after  their  original  significance  has  been  forgotten : 

a.  American  idoltry  of  a  partly  undemocratic  Federal 
Constitution. 

b.  American  veneration  for  a  common  law  at  variance 
with  certain  needs  of  an  industrial  civilization. 

c.  Deference  for  a  traditional  system  of  law  which  ex- 
hibits too  great  a  respect  for  the  individual  and  too 
little  respect  for  the  needs  of  society. 

d.  A    Chinaman    confesses :      "I    approach    my    elder 
brother   with   respect;   my   father   and  mother   with 
veneration;  my  grandfather  with  awe." 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  175 

(3)  Physical   isolation   favors   custom   imitation. 

a.  Geographic  barriers  tend  to  shut  out  new  stimuli. 

b.  In  the  back-country,  survive  clannishness,  patriarchal 
authority,  self-supporting  preachers,  "hell-fire"  doc- 
trines. 

c.  Compare  Russia   (rural)   with  Germany   (urban). 

d.  The  Isle  of  Man  is  famous  for  the  old-time  flavor 
of  its  institution  and  customs. 

(4)  Society  relies  for  stability  upon  custom — imitation;  with- 
out it  society  would  fly  to  pieces. 

(5)  Custom  imitation  is  offset  by  fashion  imitation;  the  former 
is  a  borrowing  from  ancestors  or  forerunners,  the  latter, 
from  contemporaries. 

a.  When  we   imitate  a  contemporary,   we  are   obliged 
usually  to  surrender  some  rooted  belief  or  practice; 
our  imitation  is  a  substitution,  has  to  overcome  the 
force  of  habit. 

b.  The    railroads    penetrating    the    rougher    parts    of 
Mexico  set  the  hand  three  centuries  forward  on  the 
dial. 

c.  Books,  magazines,    and    newspapers    favor    fashion 
imitation ;  on  the  whole  they  create  contacts  with  the 
present  rather  than  with  the  past. 

d.  The   school   may   deliver   the  young   from   ignorant 
prejudices;  but    if    its    basis    of    instruction  be  the 
ancient  writings  it  may  foster  a  most  cramping  tra- 
ditionalism. 

e.  Freedom  of  discussion  breaks  the  spell  of  custom- 
imitation. 

(6)  Features  of  Americanism  which  encourage  fashion  imita- 
tion as  against  custom  imitation. 

a.  Our  individualism  braces  the  immigrant  against  the 
commands  of  priests,  padrones,  the  natural  upbuild 
ers  of  tradition. 

b.  The  spirit  of  progress — little  reverence  for  antiquity. 

c.  Settlement  in  a  new  region  gives  a  blow  to  the  old 
customs. 

(7)  Three  classes  of  people  in  relation  to  fashion  imitation. 


176          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Those  who  imitate  their  superior,  so  as  to  be  taken 
for  the  superior. 

b.  Those  who  imitate  in  order  not  to  be  conspicuous. 

c.  Those  who  never  conform  to  fashion,  the  "hayseeds." 

(a)   They  are  the  people  often  of  real  backbone, 
democracy,  independence. 

(8)  It  may  become  merely  the  fashion  to  think  in  certain  ways 
and  we  imitate,  without  reason. 

fli.  That  manual  labor  is  degrading. 

b.  That  pecuniary  success  is  the  only  success. 

c.  That  civic  worth  is  measured  by  pecuniary  success. 

d.  That  things  are  beautiful  in  proportion  as  they  are 
costly. 

(9)  Laws  of  fashion  imitation. 

a.  The  social  superior  is  imitated  by  the  social  inferior. 

b.  The  more  successful  is  imitated  by  the  less  successful. 

c .  The  rich  are  imitated  by  the  poor. 

d.  The  city  is  imitated  by  the  country. 

e.  The  college  is  imitated  by  the  high  school ;  the  senior, 
by  the  freshman. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ross,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  VIII,  XII. 
Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XV. 
Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  Chs.  VII,  VIII. 
Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XIII. 
Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  VI. 

SECTION  90.     LEADERSHIP. 

(1)   Leadership  seems  to  originate  in  crises  and  conflicts. 

a.  He  who  first    shows    ability    to    cope  with  a  highly 
problematic  situation  becomes  the  leader. 

b.  Sometimes  the  situation  which  produces  leaders  is  a 
conflict  between  the  individual  and  the  group — more 
common  in  primitive  days  than  in  modern. 

c.  Sometimes  the  situation  which  produces  leaders  is  a 
conflict  between  groups. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  177 

d.  Leadership  functions  in  antagonistic  phases  of  life :  in 
maintaining  the  organized  social  process,  and  in  se- 
curing social  change. 

(a)  Leaders  today  who  are  trying  to  keep  time- 
honored  institutions  intact  and  to  uphold  the 
mores     are     in     conflict     with     leaders     who 
are  trying  to  lead  the  people  toward  better 
social  institutions  and  control. 

(b)  Today  social  leaders  who  are  trying  to  secure 
adequate  changes  in  our  property  system  are 
in  conflict  with  those  capitalistic  leaders  who 
are  trying  to  maintain  their  established  po- 
sitions. 

e.  A  group  with  too  strong  leadership  of  the  organized 
process  falls  behind ;  a  group  with  too  strong  leader- 
ship favoring  social  change  would  go  to  pieces. 

(2)  While  the  plurality  of  leadership  is  necessary,  its  unity  is 
found  in  that  balance  between  its  opposing  phases  which 
continuously  makes  for  the  best  interests  of  the  group  con- 
cerned. 

a.  In   attempts   to   define,    stimulate,   and  organize  the 
vague  sentiments  and  the  confused  tendencies  of  the 
public  mind. 

b.  In  seeking  out  the  undeveloped  capacity  of  the  people 
and  making  it  hungry  for  expression. 

(3)  Some  personal  qualities  of  social  leadership. 

a.  The  ideal   social  leader  combines  the  endurance  of 
the  warrior,  the  sagacity  of  the  captains  of  industry, 
the  power  of  a  social  motive  propelled  by  rationalized 
and  indomitable  will-power. 

b.  He  is  a  true  man — the  best  of  his  kind  available. 

c.  His  views  embrace  the  world,  his  moral  courage  as- 
sumes limitless  responsibilities,  his  sense  of  humanity 
is  so  keen  that  he  seems  one  with  the  common  peo- 
ple, to  be  of  their  sort. 

d.  The  world's  greatest  leader  is  the  world's  greatest 
problem-solver. 


12 


178          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  IX. 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Chs.  XVII,  XVIII. 

Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  Ch.  III. 

Mumford,  "The  Origins  of  Leadership,"  Amer.  Jour.  Sociol. 

12:216-40,  367-97,  500-31. 
Ross,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 

SECTION  91.  THE  POPULATION  CLASSES. 

(1)  The  results  of  association  are  not  equally  shared  by  all 
individuals. 

a.  Not  all  start  in  life  with  equally  good  heredity;  not 
all  get  equally  good  nourishment ;  not  all  share  equally 
in  an  environment  of  good  influences;  not  all  share 
equally  in  the  mental  growth  that  takes  place. 

b.  Some  teachers  are  better  than  others,  and  their  pupils 
gain   an   advantage   over   pupils   that  are  badly  in- 
structed. 

c.  Inequality  in  physical,  mental,  and  moral  power,  and 
varieties  of  disposition,  are  among  the  characteristics 
of  a  social  population. 

d.  Population  is  therefore    differentiated    into    classes : 
vitality,  personality,  and  social. 

(2)  The  vitality  classes  spring  from  the  combination  of  dif- 

ferent elements  in  the  inheritance  and  circumstance 
of  each  individual. 

a.  The  low  vitality  classes  have  a  high  birth-rate  and 
high  death-rate;  approximately  coincide  with  the  im- 
poverished lower  working  classes. 

b.  The  medium  vitality  classes  have  a  low  birth-rate 
and  a  low  death-rate;  approximately  coincide  with 
the  business  and  professional  classes  of  the  towns. 

c.  The  high  vitality  classes  have  a  high  birth-rate  and 
and   a    low    death-rate ;    roughly   coincide   with   the 
rural  land-owning  population. 

(3)  The  personality  classes:  geniuses,  normally  endowed,  de- 
fectives. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  179 

a.  The  genius — distinctive    characteristic    is    inventive 
power. 

b.  Normally  endowed — includes  all  who  are  imitative 
rather  than  inventive,    and    of    mental  and  moral 
soundness. 

c.  Defective — all  who  are  in  any  way  defective  in  mind 
and  body. 

(4)  The  social  classes,  distinguished  by  differences  of  social 
nature;  society  molds  some  individuals  into  a  perfect 
adaptation  to  social  life. 

a.  The  non-social — the  primordial  social  class — contains 
in  germ  all  social  virtue,  all  social  vice. 

b.  The  pseudo-social  and  poverty  classes — composed  of 
congenital  and  habitual  paupers,  and  the  masses  liv- 
ing below  the  poverty  line. 

c.  The  anti-social  classes  are  composed  of  instinctive, 
habitual  and  occasional  criminals ;  who  make  no  pre- 
tense of  social  virtues  and  prefer  to  live  by  open 
aggression  upon  the  social. 

d.  The  social  classes  include  those  in  whom  "the  con- 
sciousness of  kind"  is  highly  developed  and  whose 
dispositions  and  abilities  impel  them  to  make  posi- 
tive contributions  to  the  sum  of  helpful  relations. 

(a)  The  social  classes,  therefore,  are  the  natural 
aristocracy  among  men. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  V. 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  Ill,  Ch.  V. 
Goodnow,  Municipal  Government,  25-44. 
Crackanthorpe,    "Population    and    Progress,"    Fortn:    86: 
1001-16,  87:215-22. 

SECTION  92.     THE  NON-SOCIAL  CLASSES'. 

(1)  Includes,   relatively   speaking,   all   savage  and  barbarian 
peoples ;  the  great  task  of  socializing  these  millions  is  be- 
ing undertaken  primarily  by  missionary  enterprise. 

(2)  Includes  children;  not  yet  developed  and  socialized. 


180          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  Here   is  the   work   of  education;    education   should 
direct  itself  more  and  more  to  the  problem  of  pro- 
ducing efficient  members  of  society. 

(a)  Since  modern  business  with  its  ideal  of  in- 
dividual power  and  success,  frequently  pro- 
duces the  cultured  freebooter. 

(&)  Even  education  instead  of  being  a  socializing 
agency  may  become  an  individualizing  agency 
dissolving  the  social  order  itself. 

b.  Education  must  be  socialized. 

(a)  Must  aim  first  of  all  at  producing  the  citizen, 
before  it  aims  at  producing  the  lawyer,  the 
engineer,  the  physician. 

(b)  All  individuals  should  be  taught  to  be  good 
parents,  good  neighbors  and  members  of  com- 
munities even  more  than  they  are  taught  the 
accomplishments  of  life. 

(c)  While  industrial  education  has  its  place,  yet 
the  relations  of  men  to  one  another  are  more 
important  than  the  relations  of  men  to  nature. 

(d)  Such  studies  as  history,  government,  econom- 
ics, ethics,  and  the  other  social  sciences  must 
occupy  a  larger  and  larger  place  in  the  edu- 
cation  of  the   future. 

c.  A  training  in  the  social  science  branches  will  check 
many  of  the  most  menacing  and  unsocial  tendencies 
of  our  present  civilization. 

(a)  It   will   lessen    the    practical    materialism   of 
modern  civilization;  will  throw  the  emphasis 
on  the  relations  of  men  to  one  another  rather 
than  on  the  relations  of  men  to  nature. 

(b)  Will  check  the  exaggerated  individualism  of 
the  day. 

(c)  Will   insure   the   development   of   true   moral 
freedom;  will  involve  a  searching  and  imper- 
sonal   inspection    of    social    institutions    and 
public  policies. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  181 

Suggested  Readings : 

*EHwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  XV. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  287-98. 
Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  X. 
Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Ch.  III. 

SECTION  93.    THE   PSEUDO-SOCIAL  AND   POVERTY 
CLASSES. 

(1)  Poverty — that  economic  and  social  state  in  which  persons 
have  not  sufficient  income  to  maintain  health  and  physical 
efficiency. 

a.  Pauperism — the  state  of  legal  dependence  where  re- 
lief is  received  from  public  sources. 

(2)  Booth  estimates  that  30%  of  the  population  of  London 
live  below  the  poverty  line ;  not  so  prevalent  in  the  United 
States  as  yet. 

(3)  Objective  causes  of  poverty  or  those  to  be  found  outside 
of  the  individual  in  the  environment. 

a.  Economic — defective  industrial  organization,  unjust 
distribution  of  wealth,  child  and  woman  labor,  etc. 

b.  Defects  in  government,  permitting  corruption  on  the 
one  hand  or  failing  to  check  economic  evils  on  the 
other. 

c.  Unsanitary  conditions  of  living,  educational  defects. 

d.  Unassimilated  immigration,  etc. 

(4)  Subjective  causes  of  poverty. 

a.  Physical  and  mental  defects  of  all  sorts,  especially 
those  arising  from  sickness  and  accidents. 

b.  Intemperance,  sexual  vice,  old  age,  neglect  and  de- 
sertion. 

6\  A  large  percentage  of  poverty  seems  attributable  to 
misfortune  rather  than  to  misconduct. 

(5)  Science  of  philanthrophy  now  organizing  scientific  ways 
of  dealing  with  poverty. 

a.  Remedies  and  methods  of  prevention  must  be  along 
the  lines  of  biological  and  psychological  adjustment 
of  the  individual  to  the  social  organization. 


182          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

b.  Outdoor  relief — relief  given  to  the  poor  outside  of  an 
institution — to  overcome  adverse  circumstances  with- 
out impairing  the  character  of  the  individual  and  of 
family  life. 

c.  Indoor  relief —  within  institutions  for  the  permanently 
dependent  classes. 

d.  Preventive  measures — for  better  housing,  for  better 
sanitation,  for  purer  food,  for  more  just  economic 
conditions,  for  prevention  of  disease,  etc. 

e.  Scientific  understanding  of  the  conditions  necessary 
for  normal  human  social  life. 

Suggested  Readings : 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  XII. 
Webb,  S.  and  B.,  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Chs.  I,  X. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  298-304. 
Warner,  American  Charities,  Ch.  II. 

Henderson,   Dependents,   Defectives   and   Delinquents,   Pts. 
I,  II. 

SECTION  94.    THE  ANTI-SOCIAL  CLASSES. 

(1)  Crime — a  violation  of  law. 

a.  But  law  itself  is  only  one  aspect  of  social  life,  and  a 
broader  definition  of  crime  would  be  uanti-social 
acts." 

(2)  Three  main  classes  of  criminals. 

a.  The  instinctive  or  born  criminal  in  whom  the  ten- 
dency to  crime   is   inborn,   due  to   some  congenital 
defect. 

(a)  Most  common  type  is  the  moral  imbecile,  a 
person  slightly  mentally  defective,  who  can 
not  distinguish  right  from  wrong. 

b.  The  habitual  criminal — a  normal  person  who  has  ac- 
quired the  tendency  to  crime  from  his  environment. 

(a)  The  most  marked  type  is  the  professional,  fre- 
quently above  the  average  in  ability;  the  most 
dangerous  class  of  criminals  with  which  society 
has  to  deal. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  183 

c.  Single  offender — a  normal  person  who  commits  only 
a  single  crime  through  some  sudden  stress  or  temp- 
tation. 

(a)   Single   offenders   constitute   perhaps   40%   of 
our  prison  population. 

d.  Grave  fault  of  our  penal  institutions  that  they  have 
not   provided   for   different   treatment   for   different 
classes   of  criminals. 

(3)  Cost  of  crime  in  the  United  States. 

a.  Estimated   cost  of  police,   prisons,   annually,   $200,- 
000,000. 

b.  Estimated  that  250,000  criminals  at  large,  cost  on 
average  $1,650  annually,  total  $400,000,000— grand 
total,  $600,000,000. 

(a)  In  comparison,  cost  of  public  education  in  the 
United  States  is  annually  about  $425,000,000. 

(4)  England  is  the  only  country  of  the  civilized  world  where 
there  is  an  apparent  decrease  in  crime  in  proportion  to 
population. 

d.  This  decrease  may  be  attributed  to  England's  excel- 
lent prison  system  and  also  to  the  swiftness  and  cer- 
tainty of  the  English  courts  of  justice. 

(5)  Causes  of  crime. 

a.  Objective — demoralized    homes,    city    life,    economic 
crises  and  hard  times,  defects  in  our  criminal  pro- 
cedure. 

b.  Subjective — due  to  structural  and  functional  abnor- 
malities. 

(6)  Crime — dealt  with  by  the  science  of  criminology. 

a.  Every  individual  must  be  well-born,  physically  and 
mentally. 

b.  Every  individual  must  have  a  training  at  home  and  at 
school  which  will  adjust  him  properly  to  society. 

c.  Just  social  conditions  must  be  provided. 
Suggested  Readings: 

*EHwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  XIII. 
McConnell,    Criminal   Responsibility   and    Social   Restraint, 
Chs.  XXII,  XXIII. 


184          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  304-37. 

Wines,  Punishment  and  Reformation,  Ch.  I,  ff. 
Henderson,  Preventive  Agencies  and  Methods,  Ch.  I,  ff. 
Parmelee,  Anthropology  and  Sociology  in  Relation  to  Crim- 
inal Procedure,  Ch.  III. 

SECTION  95.     THE  PRE-EMINENT  SOCIAL  CLASSES. 

( 1 )  The  pre-eminent  social  classes — men  and  women  who  have 
health,  originality    and    that    unselfish   love  of  mankind 
which  move  them  to  devote  their  efforts  to  promoting  the 
social  welfare. 

a.  Small  in  numbers,  but  accomplish  the  greater  part 
of  those  undertakings  which  in  their  totality,  we  call 
progress. 

b.  Give   to   society   the   new   inventions,   the   improve- 
ments in  law,  industry,  art,  religion,  and  morals. 

c.  Do  most  of  the  original  thinking  for  society,  lead- 
ing, directing,  organizing. 

d.  New  truth  opens  to  their  keener  vision,  new  possi- 
bilities of  life  appear  in  response  to  their  quick  sym- 
pathies and  pure  ideals. 

e.  They  communicate    not    merely    cold    facts,  but  the 
psychical  life  in  which  truth  and  ideals  are  realized. 

/.  Stoned  perhaps  by  their  own  age,  probably  because 

they  were  not  content  with  it. 
g.  Honored  by  the  later  ages  to  which  in  spirit  they 

belonged ;  looking  backward,  we  say  of  them :    "They 

lived  before  their  time." 
h.  To  the  superior  class  is  given  the  task  of  modifying 

the  estimates  of  things  held  socially  valuable. 
i.  Most  of  the  inhibiting  impulses  sent  through  a  social 

group  emanate  from  a  minority  with  brains,  prestige, 

and  superior  social  insight. 

(2)  In  nothing  whatever  can  a  nation  so  ill  afford  to  be  waste- 
ful as  in  her  men  and  women  who  combine  health  and 
originality  with  a  highly  developed  social  nature. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  185 

Suggested  Readings : 
*Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XL 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Ch.  XXVI. 

Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Chs.  II  and  V. 

Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  XVIII. 

Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Chs.  V,  VI. 
Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  XL 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  Macm: 
1906. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  The  Individual  and  Society,  Badger:  1911. 

Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm:  1905. 

Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Ginn:  1905. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Scrib- 
ner's:  1902. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  Social  Organization,  Scribner's :  1909. 

Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett:  1909. 

Dealey  and  Ward,  Text-book  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 

Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics,  Holt:  1908. 

Ellwood,   C.   A.,    Sociology   and   Modern   Social   Problems, 
Amer.  Book:  1910. 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ap- 
pleton:  1912. 

Fairbanks,  A.,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner's :  1910. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1909. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Macm. :  1907. 

Goodnow,  F.  J.,  Municipal  Government,  Century:  1909. 

Henderson,  C.  R.,  Preventive  Agencies  and  Methods,  Char. 
Pub:  1910. 

Henderson,    C.    R.,    Dependents,    Defectives,    Delinquents, 
Heath:  1909. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Macm: 
1908. 

Le  Bon,  G.,  The  Crowd,  Unwin :  1903. 

McConnell,  R.  M.,  Criminal  Responsibility  and  Social  Re- 
straint, Scribner's:  1912. 

McDougall,  W.,  Social  Psychology,  Luce :  1909. 

Parmelee,  M.,  Anthropology  and  Sociology  in  Relation  to 
Criminal  Procedure,  Macm:  1908. 


186          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Ribot,  Th.,  Psychology  of  the  Emotions,  Scribner's:   1911. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  Macm:   1910. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Psychology,  Macm:  1908. 

Small,  A.  W.,  General  Sociology,  Univ.  of  Chi.  Pr:  1905. 

Tarde,  G.,  Laws  of  Imitation,  tr.  Parsons,  Holt:  1903. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  Applied  Sociology,  Ginn :  1906. 

Warner,  A.  G.,  American  Charities,  Crowell :  1908. 

Webb.  S.  and  B.,  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Longmans:  1911. 

Wines,  F.  H.,  Punishment  and  Reformation,  Crowell,  1910. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  XL 

1.  The  Social  Center  Movement  in  the  United  States. 

2.  The  George  Junior  Republic  Idea. 

3.  History  of  Social  Settlements. 

4.  The  Work  of  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsey. 

5.  Charity  Organizations  in  your  City. 

6.  The  Social  Significance  of  China's  Awakening. 

7.  Miss  Jane  Addams  and  Hull  House. 

8.  The  Writings  of  Edward  A.  Steiner. 

9.  The  Jukes. 

10.     The  Leading  Socializing  Influence  in  your  City. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
A  SUMMARY  OF  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


SECTION  96.    THE  BEGINNING  OF  SOCIAL  PROGRESS. 

( 1 )  Society  has  expanded  from  simple  beginnings,  function  by 
function,  part  by  part. 

a.  Animal  societies  show  social  qualities  in  embryo. 

b.  Our  starting-point  is  with  earliest  social  groups. 

(a)  We  presuppose  not  an  individual,  but  a  group. 

(b)  Life   in  social   groups   is  the  most  powerful 
weapon  in  the  struggle  for  existence;  enables 
the    feebler    insects,    the    feebler    birds,    the 
feebler  mammals  to  protect  their  lives. 

c.  Neither  in  savagery  nor  in  civilization  do  men  nor- 
mally live  in  isolation. 

(2)  Among  all  species  and  in  every  stage  of  evolution,  the 
extent  of  social  grouping  and  its  place  or  position  is  de- 
termined by  external  physical  conditions. 

,.  Where  a  food  supply  is  found  or  may  be  certainly  and 

easily  produced. 
b.  Earliest  social  groups  are  maintained  at  a  certain  size 

and  prevented   from  growing  larger  chiefly  by  the 

quantity  of  available  food. 

(3)  The  remains  of  the  earliest  social  groups  are  found  in  the 
region  running  northwest  and  southeast  from  India. 

a.  The  first  really  dense  massing  of  population  was  in 
that  wonderful  valley  600  miles  long  with  an  average 
breadth  of  seven  miles — the  Nile. 

b.  The  valley  of  the  Euphrates  which  for  thousands  of 
years  was  the  Nile's  only  rival  was  almost  equally 
fertile. 

(4)  Ancient  groupings  reach  a  certain  stage  of  civilization  and 
then  fall  away  chiefly  because  they  are  unable  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  nature. 

187 


188          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

a.  India's  high  temperature  a  cause  of  her  decline. 

(a)  A  cheap  and  abundant  national  food  in  rice, 
labor  market  oversupplied  and  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  wealth,  then  an  unequal  distribu- 
tion of  social  and  political  power. 

(5)   Ancient  civilizations  subject  to  sublimity  of  nature  which 
tended  to  excite  imagination  and  discourage  knowledge, 
a.  In  Europe,  on  the    whole,    the    tendency  of  natural 
phenomena  is  to  limit  the  imagination  and  embolden 
the  understanding — thus  making  social  advance  again 
possible. 

Suggested  Readings : 

Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Bk.  II,  Ch.  1. 
Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  VII. 
Dealey,  Sociology,  Ch.  II. 
Giddings,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XX. 

SECTION  97.      MIGRATION  PROBLEMS  AND  SOCIAL 
PROGRESS. 

(1)  All  peoples  more  or  less  migratory  in  their  habits,  man 
has  been  a  wanderer  upon  the  face  of  the  earth  since 
earliest  times. 

a.  The  human  species  probably  spread  from  a  relatively 
narrow  area  and  peopled  the  earth  by  successive  mi- 
grations. 

b.  Ancient  migrations  were  largely  those  of  peoples  or 
tribes ;  modern  migration  is  more  of  an  individual 
matter. 

c.  Surface  of  earth  offers  grooves  whose  direction  de- 
termines the  destination  of  unplanned  migrations  and 
whose    termini    become    regions    of    historical    im- 
portance. 

(a)  St.  Lawrence  river  followed  by  Jesuits,  then 
by  fur-traders,  now  by  whaleback  steamers 
after  Manitoba  wheat. 

d.  Migration  is  usually  in  relation  to  zones  and  heat- 
belts. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  189 

(a)   Europe  has  received  immigrants  chiefly  from 

temperate  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
e.  Movement  is  usually  from  one  habitat  to  a  similar 
one. 

(a)  Westward  movement  in  the  United  States  was 
usually  from  one  environment  to  a  similar  one 
farther  to  the  west. 

/.  Movements  in  19th  century  probably  exceed  in  the 
numbers  of  individuals  concerned,  any  other  migra- 
tory movements  of  which  we  have  record. 

(2)  Causes  of  ancient  migrations  and  primary  causes  of  all 
migrations  seem  to  be  (a)  lack  of  food,  (b)  lack  of  terri- 
tory for  all  expanding  population,  (c)  war. 

a.  In  modern  times  other  causes  operate,  (d)  to  get 
better  economic  opportunities,  (e)  political  oppres- 
sion, (/)  religious  persecution. 

(3)  The  principal  countries  which  today  receive  immigrants 
are :    United  States,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Canada,  Australia. 

(4)  Migration  to  the  United  States. 

a.  Up  to  1840,  the  number  in  any  one  year  was  rela- 
tively small. 

b.  In  1842,  the  number  reached  100,000  for  the  first  time ; 
in  1905,  1,000,000. 

c.  Up  to  1880,  75%  came  from  Western  Europe;  since 
1880,  about  75%  from  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe. 

d.  Four-fifths  of  recent  immigrants  belong  to  unskilled 
classes;  two-thirds  are  males. 

e.  Present  tendency  to  mass  in  mining,  manufacturing, 
and  transportation  industries;  hence  in  small  indus- 
trial cities  or  in  whole  sections  of  large  cities. 

/.  About  one-fourth  cannot  read  or  write  in  any  lan- 
guage. 

(5)  Immigration  to  the  United  States  has  developed  our  nat- 
ural resources,  given  the  United  States  some  of  its  best 
blood,  but  has  also  accentuated  the  social  problems  of  our 
country. 

Suggested  Readings : 
*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  IX. 


190          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

Jenks  and  Lauck,  The  Immigration  Problem,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Hourwich,  Immigration  and  Labor,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Roberts,  The  New  Immigration,  Ch.  I,  ft'. 

Steiner,  On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant,  Ch.  I,  ff. 

Turner,  in  Bullock,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Ch.  II. 

Warne,  The  Immigrant  Invasion,  Chs.  XIV,  XV. 

Fairchild,   Immigration,   Chs.   XVII,  XVIII. 

SECTION  98.     URBAN  PROBLEMS  AND  SOCIAL 
PROGRESS. 

(1)  The  growth  of  large  cities  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest 
of  all  the  problems  of  modern  civilization. 

a.  The  city  is  an  intensification  of  all  our  other  social 
problems — crime,  vice,  poverty. 

(2)  The  city  is  in  a  sense  a  relatively  modern  problem,  due  to 
modern  industrial  development. 

a.  Down  to  1800  there  were  only  22  cities  in  Europe 
with  a  population  over  100,000. 

b.  In   1800,  only  six  cities  in  the  United   States  with 
over  8,000  population ;  in  1900,  546  such  cities. 

(3)  Causes  of  the  growth  of  great  cities. 

a.  Relatively  less  importance  of  agriculture  in  the  life 
of  man. 

b.  Growth  and  centralization  of  manufacturing  indus- 
tries. 

c.  Increase  of  trade  and  commerce. 

(a)   Nearly  all  great  cities  are  located  at  natural 
breaks  in  transportation. 

(4)  Social  conditions  of  city  life. 

a.  People  in  the  active  period  of  life,  from  15  to  65 
years  of  age  predominate  in  the  city. 

b.  Great  cities  in  the  United  States  have  over  twice  as 
many  foreign-born  in  their  population  as  the  United 
States  as  a  whole. 

c.  Birth  and  marriage  rates  are  higher  in  the  cities  than 
in  the  country. 

d.  Death-rate  is  higher  than  in  the  country — due  to  poor 
living  conditions. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  191 

e.  Physical  condition  of  city  populations  far  below  that 
of  the  rural  populations. 

f.  Crime  and  illegitimacy  are  both  about  twice  as  high, 
likewise  the  suicide  rate,  poverty  is  far  more  common. 

g.  But  illiteracy  of  native  white  children  is  much  less 
than  in  the  country. 

(5)  Proposed  remedies  for  evils  of  city  life. 

a.  Make  agriculture  more  attractive;  also  village  life. 

b.  Colonize  the  poor  of  cities  in  the  country. 

c.  Develop  suburbs  through  rapid  transit. 

d.  Most  important,  an  improved  municipal  housekeeping. 

(a)  A  socialized  control  by  the  people  of  the  city 
of  all  those  things  that  are  used  in  common. 

(6)  The  era  of  the  city  is  just  beginning. 

a.  Larger  and  larger  proportions  of  our  population  will 
come  to  live  under  urban  conditions. 

b.  The  city  will  dominate  the  society  of  the  future. 

c.  Humanity  must  solve  the  problems  of  the  city  if  social 
progress  is  to  continue. 

d.  The  city  can  be  made  a  place  in  which  human  beings 
may  find  their  ideal  society. 

Suggested  Readings: 

*Ellwood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  Ch.  XL 
Beard,  American  City  Government,  Ch.  I,  if. 
Howe,  The  City,  Chs.  XIX,  XX. 
Wilcox,  The  American  City,  Ch.  I. 
Munro,  Government  of  American  Cities,  Ch.  II. 
Nearing.  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  V. 

SECTION  99.     THE  GOAL  OF  SOCIAL  PROGRESS :    A 
NORMAL  SOCIETY. 

(1)   Of  the  essential  conditions  of  a  normal  society,  a  sound 
physical  heredity  may  be  named  first. 

a.  Degenerate  offspring  of  feeble-minded,  or  alcoholic 
parents  come  into  the  world  with  a  just  grievance 
against  society. 

b.  Every  child  should  be  well-born. 


192          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(2)  Second:  protected  childhood. 

a.  From  actual  exposure  and  abandonment. 

b.  From  death    by    neglect,    in    orphanage,  or  by  the 
failure  of  parents  in  ability  to  care  for  their  offspring. 

c.  From  actual  cruelty  and  maltreatment  by  parents  or 
guardians. 

d.  From  exploitation  by  employment  for  wages  in  the 
tender  years  of  childhood. 

(3)  Third:   a   prolonged   working  period   for  both  men  and 
women. 

a.  Conditions  of  industry  should  be  so  guarded  that 
workers  shall  not  be  worn  out  and  thrown  upon  the 
scrap  heap  in  middle  life. 

(4)  Fourth :  freedom  from  preventable  disease. 

a.  By  giving  to  health  authorities  universal  and  con- 
structive oversight  of  infectious  diseases  and  remedi- 
able defects  of  children  of  school  age. 

b.  By  lowering  the  death-rate,  by  the  conquest  of  in- 
fectious diseases,  by  increasing  vitality. 

(5)  Fifth:  protection  from  a  class  of  well-known  and  easily 
identified  criminals,  whom  we  do  not  reform  and  whom 
we  do  not  outlaw. 

a.  By  reforming  prison  and  jail  and  by  setting  to  work 
until  reformed  the  recognized  class  of  professional 
criminals,  vagrants,  thieves,  procurers,  etc. 

(6)  Sixth :  some  general  system  of  insurance  against  all  of 
the  ordinary  contingencies  which  now  cause  dependence 
or  sudden  lowering  of  the  standard  of  living. 

a.  A  general  system  of  insurance  against  death,  old 
age,  accident,  sickness. 

(7)  Seventh:  a  system  of  education  with  vocational  training 
(industrial,  commercial,  domestic),  but  which  trains,  first 
of  all  for  good  citizenship  and  good  parenthood. 

(8)  Eighth :  a  scientific  relief  system — for  helping  individuals 
and  families  to  make  new  adjustments. 

a.  Such  a  need  will  arise  from  time  to  time  in  a  dynamic 
society  which  is  making  new  advances  and  new  dis- 
coveries. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  193 

(9)  Ninth:  a  standard  of  living  high  enough  to  insure  full 
nourishment,    reasonable    recreation,    adequate    protection 
from  cold,  heat,  rain,  darkness,  overcrowding,  indecency. 

a.  For  a  family  of  five  in  a  large  city,  a  minimum  in- 
come of  about  $800  or  $900. 

(10)  The  final  condition  for  a  normal  society  is  religion. 

a.  It  is  the  greatest  thing  in  the  world,  but  it  is  not  yet 
entirely  social. 

b.  Even  in  an  imperfect  and  growing  society  there  must 
be  the  purifying  influence  of  religion. 

Suggested  Readings: 
*Devine,  Misery  and  its  Causes,  Ch.  VI. 
Nearing,  Social  Adjustment,  Ch.  XVII. 
Patten,  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization,  Chs.  IX,  X. 
Devine,  Social  Forces  (entire  book). 

SECTION   100.      THE   STUDY  OF  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 
AS  CONDUCTED  BY  THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCES. 

(1)  Three  broad  fields  of  science. 

a.  Physical — most  exact,  least  complex,  builds  up  laws 
of  the  inorganic  world. 

b.  Biological — based  on  physical,   deals  primarily  with 
the  general  laws  of  the  organic  life. 

c.  Social — based  on  both  physical  and  biological  laws, 
deals  with  the  human  species  in  the  organic  world. 

(2)  The  social    sciences    include    the    various    special  social 
sciences     such    as    economics,    political    science,    ethics, 
psychology,  history,  anthropology,  ethnology,  philanthropy, 
criminology,  etc. 

a.  As  biological  sciences  have  a  general  science  of 
biology  dealing  with  general  laws,  so  social  sciences 
have  a  general  science  of  sociology  dealing  with  gen- 
eral social  laws. 

(3)  Sociology  is  the  science  of  social  progress. 

a.  It  gives  a  viewpoint  for  the  special  social  sciences, 
and  keeps  them  united. 

b.  It    receives    its    materials    from    the    special    social 
sciences,  upon  which  it  generalizes. 

13 


194          University  of  Southern  California  Publications. 

(4)  Aim  of  the  social  sciences:  (a)  to  furnish  exact  knowl- 
edge of  human  affairs,  (b)  to  devise  remedial  and  pre- 
ventive means  of  avoiding  unsocial  and  anti-social  condi- 
tions, (c)  to  devise  means  of  hastening  social  progress. 

a.  By  estimating  social  forces  and  their  resultant  action 
and  by  discovery  of  laws  which  control  these  forces 
it   becomes   possible   to   show   probable   outcome   of 
present  conditions. 

b.  The  social  sciences  can  indicate  the  way  of   social 
progress. 

Bibliography  of  Suggested  Readings  for  Chapter  XI L 
Beard,  C.  A.,  American  City  Government,  Century :  1912. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1905. 
Bullock,  C.  J.,  Selected  Readings  in  Economics,  Ginn:  1907. 
Dealey,  J.  Q.,  Sociology,  Silver,  Burdett :  1909. 
Ellis,  H.,  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene,  Houghton,  Mifflin: 

1912. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology    and    Modern    Social  Problems, 

Amer.  Bk:  1910. 
Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ap- 

pleton:  1912. 

Fairchild,  H.  P.,  Immigration,  Macm:  1913. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  Elements  of  Sociology,  Macm :  1909. 
Giddings,    F.    H.,    Descriptive    and    Historical    Sociology, 

Macm:  1911. 

Hourwich,  I.  A.,  Immigration  and  Labor,  Putnam:  1912. 
Howe,  F.  C.,  The  City,  Scribner's :  1909. 
Jenks  and  Lauck,  The  Immigration  Problem,  Funk  and  Wag- 
nails  :  1912. 
Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  American  Cities,  Macm : 

1912. 

Nearing,  Scott,  Social  Adjustment,  Macm :  1908. 
Roberts,  Peter,  The  New  Immigration,  Macm :  1912. 
Steiner,  E.  A.,  On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant,  Revell :  1906. 
Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W.,  Sociology,  Putnam :  1903. 
Taussig,  F.  W.,  Principles  of  Economics,  Macm:  1911. 
Thomas,  W.  L,  Source-book  for  Social  Origins,  Univ.  of  Chi. 

Pr:  1909. 


An  Introduction  to  the  Social  Sciences.  195 

Warne,  F.  J.,  The  Immigrant  Invasion,  Dodd,  Mead:  1913. 
Wilcox,  D.  F.,  The  American  City,  Macm:  1911. 
Woods,  R.  A.,  and  others,  Americans  in  Progress,  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin,  1902. 

Suggested  Topics  for  Investigation  for  Chapter  XII. 

1.  The  Great  Man  Theory  of  Social  Progress. 

2.  History  of  Sociological  Thought. 

3.  The  Five  Most  Serious  Social  Problems  in  your  City. 

4.  Race  Problems  and  Social  Progress. 

5.  Social  Science  Courses  in  the  High  School. 

6.  A  Summary  of  Social  Progress  in  1913. 

7.  A  Study  of  Ross'  Social  Control. 

8.  The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene  (Havelock  Ellis). 

9.  The  Social  Unrest. 

10.  Five  Leading  Obstacles  to  Social  Progress. 

11.  The  Place  of  the  Social  Sciences  in  Education. 

12.  Social  Parasites. 


INDEX 

Page 

Accidents   90 

and  fatigue 45 

on  railways   60,  90 

in  factory 91 

Accident  insurance 98 

Adulteration  of  foods 52 

Advertising  as  a  censor  of  news 163 

Aesthetics,  social  function  of 151 

Aesthetic  factors  in  social  progress 141-154 

Aesthetic  feelings 141 

Agriculture : 

terrace 21 

development  of  82 

development  of  American 83 

Alcoholic  liquors    48 

and  social  evil 77 

Alphabet,  achievement  of 159 

Altitudes,  high   21 

Altruism,  generated  by  the  family 79 

American  lawlessness    116 

Analysis  of  social  progress 10 

Ancestor  worship  65,  130 

Animals : 

domestication  of 82 

worship   of    130 

Animism 131 

Anti-social  classes  182 

Arabians  and  medicine 53 

Architecture 144 

Area,  influence  on  society 16 

Arts  of  rest  and  of  motion 142 

Associational  factors  171-186 

Australian,  black 143,  146 

Bacterial  diseases    42 

Beginnings  of  religion 129 

Beginnings  of  social  progress 187 

Biological  factors  in  social  progress 29-39 

Biological  laws_  in  society 29 

Biological  sciences  7 

Birth-rate  178 

Body,  decoration  of 143 

Buddhism,  non-social  emphasis  of 132-134 

197 


198  INDEX. 

Business,  ethics  of 128 

Capitalism 85,  88-90 

Carlyle    8 

Carrel,  Alexis   54 

Certified  milk   52 

Child  labor    71 

Childhood  protected 192 

Christianity,  influence  on  family 67 

Christian  socialists 8,  99 

Cities,  growth  of 190 

City  state  107 

Classes,  th«  population  178 

Classes : 

social  179 

non-social  179 

poverty    181 

anti-social  182 

Climate : 

influence    of    22 

and  temperament  23 

Coal,  conservation  of 25 

Coal-mine,  accidents  in    91 

Coffee-bean  making  machinery 52 

Collective  bargaining 87 

Commercialized  play  56 

"Community  of  interests" 89 

Compensation    91 

Conduct  regulated  by  custom 124-126 

Confucianism 131 

Conservation  of  natural  resources 24 

of  coal    25 

of  human  resources 59 

of  the  child  71 

of  the  soil    24 

of  water-power    25 

Consumer,  responsibility  of 74 

Contagious  diseases  and  fatigue 45 

Co-operation,  in  organic  evolution 30 

Corruption   119 

Courts,  changing  attitude  of 117 

Credit    96 

Crime,  cost  of,  in  U.  S 183 

not  necessarily  inherited 32 

Criminal,   classes   of 182 

Criminology,  science  of 183 

Crisis  and  leadership 176 


INDEX.  199 

Curiosity  impulse,  the    38,  155 

Custom  and  reflective  morality  compared 126 

Custom,  conduct  regulated  by 124-126 

Custom  imitation   174 

Dance,   degeneration   of 148 

primitive  147 

Dangerous  trades  90 

Deaths,  not  natural 47 

Decoration,  personal   142 

of  the  hair 143 

Democracy  108 

Deserts,  social  influence  of 19 

desert-born  genius  for  religion 20 

Diphtheria    43 

Divorce ^. 74 

Dust,  injurious  to  the  worker 90 

Earth,  man's  relation  to 13 

Economic  factors  in  social  progress 81-103 

Economic  loss,  due  to  illness  60 

Economic  thought,  development  of 100-102 

Education  must  be  socialized  180 

Education,  sociological  aspects  of 164 

Egyptian  religion  132 

England,  divorce  in 75 

industrial  evolution  in 85 

crime  in   183 

Ethical  factors  in   social  progress 123-140 

Ethics  of  modern  business 128 

Eugenics 57-59 

Evolution   29 

Fabian  socialists  99 

Factors  in  social  progress 9 

Factory  accidents  91 

Factory  system  84 

Family,  a  primary  social  structure 78 

and  child  labor 72 

forms  of 54 

historical  development  of 66-68 

instability  of   74 

low-standard   73 

origin  of 63 

Fashion  imitation 174 

laws  of  176 

Fatigue   44 

Fauna  of  the  world 34 

Feather  as  ornament 143 


200  INDEX. 

Feeble-minded  reproducing  their  kind 57 

Fetish  worship  130 

Feudal  state 107 

Field  of  social  sciences 7 

Fletcher,  Horace 43 

Flora  of  the  world 34 

Foods,  adulteration  of  52 

energy-giving  classes  48 

Forests,  conservation  of 25 

Genetic  factors  63-80 

Geographic  area  and  location 14 

Geographic  factors 13-28 

summary  of 26 

Germany,  divorce  75 

Gilds,  craft ;  merchant 85 

Glacial  epoch 14 

Goal  of  social  progress 191 

Government,  distrust  of 119 

Greeks,  ancestor  worship  66 

art  of 152 

religion  of  132 

Gregarious  impulse,  the  3g)  171 

Group  morality,  persistence  of 126 

Guatama,  founder  of  Buddhism 132 

Hague  conventions 118 

Handicraft  stage 84,  86 

Harvey,  William 54 

Havana,  death  rate  lowered  in 59 

Hebrew  tribes  66 

Heredity 30 

Hill,  Rowland  94 

Hoe-culture  83 

Holding  corporation  89 

Holland  16 

Housing  problem  68 

Human  resources,  conservation  of 59 

Hygienic  and  eugenic  factors 41-61 

Hygiene,  of  environment 48 

and  nutrition  48 

Imitation 174 

Immigrants  and  wages 73,  74 

Immigration  to  the  U.  S. 189 

Indoor  relief  182 

Indian,  Delaware  27 

Indifference  to  public  concerns 119 

Industrial  compensation  91 


INDEX.  201 

Industrial  evolution  8,  85 

Industrial  inefficiency  and  fatigue 45 

Industry,  doubly  wasteful   47 

first    steps    in    81 

versus  the  home 79 

women  in 70 

Infant  mortality  49 

Inheritance  tax .• 112 

Inhibition  of  American  Indian 158 

Instinct  63 

parental    64 

sex    76 

Insurance,  social  meaning  of 97,  192 

Intellectual    factors    in    social    progress 155-170 

Intellect,  the  role  of 168 

International  law    117 

International  problems,  the  118 

Invention    81,  159 

Judaism    135 

Jukes  58 

Koch,  Robert 54 

Knowledge  155 

Labor,  organization  of 86 

protection  of   86 

Labor   unions    74 

history  of,  in  U.  S. 87 

Laissez  faire   86 

Large  scale  production  88 

Law,  housing    69 

federal  divorce   76 

Law,  sociological  foundation  of  114 

Lawlessness,  American  116 

Lead  poisoning  90 

Leadership   176-178 

Legal  factors  in  social  progress 105-121 

Legal  profession,  a  social  service  profession 115 

Legislation  and  social  adjustment  112-114 

Legislation  for  pure  food 50 

Life   insurance    98 

Lister,  Joseph 54 

Literature,  as  an  autobiography 161 

Lock-jaw    44 

Longevity    31,  46,  59 

Malarial  fever 43 

Man's  partnership  with  nature  28 

Man's  relation  to  the  earth 13 


202  INDEX. 

Marriage,  forms  of  65 

Martial  spirit 151 

Marxian  socialism  99 

Medical  science 53-55 

Mendel's  law  of  heredity 31 

Mental  life  misunderstood  157 

Mercantile  system   85 

Metronymic  form  of  family 64 

Micro-biology  of  special  industries 36 

Micro-organisms  and  human  life    35 

Migration  problems  188 

Milk   supply  and   sanitation 52 

Mind,  earliest  signs  of 156 

Mind  of  primitive  man 157-159 

Minimum  standard  of  living 73 

Mohammedanism    134 

social  weakness  of 135 

Monarchy 108 

Money,  social  function  of 95 

Monogamy 65 

Morality,  beginning  of 123 

and  Buddhism 133 

Morals,  and  fatigue  45 

and  child  labor 72 

double  standard  of 77 

Mores,   origin  of 125 

Mortality  rate,  index  of  vitality 59 

Mountain  boundaries  rarely  impartial 20 

Mountain  environment  20 

and  political  dismemberment   21 

museum  of  social  antiquity 22 

Muir,  John    48 

Music,  social  meaning  of 150 

Musical  endowments  150 

Mutation 33 

National  Consumers'  League 74 

Natural  resources,  conversation  of 24 

Nature,  man's  partnership  with 27 

New  York,  housing    68 

standard  of  living  in 73 

social  evil  in  77 

Newspaper,  the  modern 162 

Non-social  classes    179 

Normal    society    191 

Oceans,  social  significance  of 16 

Oratory,  power  of  149 


INDEX.  203 

Overwork 44 

Organic  evolution    29 

Organisms  distinguished  from  inorganic  substances 29 

Origin  of  family 63 

Ornamentation    144 

Outdoor  relief 182 

Painting  of  body  143 

Painting,  social  value  of   146 

Pasteur,  Louis 54 

Pasteurized  milk    52 

Pathogenic  bacteria  36 

Patronymic  form  of  family 65 

Pauperism,  not  necessarilv  inherited 32 

Personal  decoration  142 

of  the  hair    143 

Philanthrophy,  science  of    181 

Physical  and  geographic  factors 13-28 

summary  of    26 

Physical  sciences   7 

Plagues,  explanations  of 42 

Plains,  social  influence  of  18 

Plants  used  by  man 34 

Plato's  ideal  democracy  15 

Play    55-57 

Pleasure  in  rhythm  144 

Poetry  unites  men  149 

Politics    119 

Political  factors  in  social  progress * 105-121 

Political  problems  of  the  day 118 

Polyandry    65 

Polygyny 65 

Polytheism   131 

Poor,  fallacies  in  regard  to  the 68 

Population  classes   178 

Poverty 181 

Prayer    130 

Primitive  dance    147 

Primitive  ornament   142 

Private  property,  beginning  of 181 

Production,  large  scale 88 

Property  tax   112 

Psychological  basis  of  knowledge 155 

Pure  food  and  drugs  act 50 

Pure  food  movement  in  U.  S. 49 

Railroad,  accidents  on 90 

miles  of,  in  U.  S. 94 


204  INDEX. 

Recapitulation  theory  of  play 55 

Reflective  and  custom  morality  compared 126 

Reflective  morality 127 

Reform  in  party  machinery 119 

Relief,  outdoor  and  indoor 182,  192 

Religion    9 

and  the  state 110 

an  essential   193 

beginnings    of    129 

desert-born  genius  for   20 

in  its  purest  form 136 

Religious  factors  in  social  progress 123-138 

Religious  problems 137-138 

Renaissance,  influence  on  family 67 

art  in    147 

Rhythm,  pleasure  in   144 

Ritual    125 

Rivers,  bases  of  commercial  pre-eminence 17 

rivers  unite   17 

Roman,  early  family  life 66 

Roman  law   114 

Sacrifice 130 

Sanitation    51-53 

Scarification    143 

School   system,   the  public    166 

Science    165 

Sculpture,  social  value  of 146 

Self-preservation   impulses 41 

Sex  hygiene 76 

Sex  instinct  63 

perversion  of    . . . . 76 

Sexes,  psychical  differences  between 63 

Sickness   insurance    98 

Slavery,  beginning  of 83 

Small,  Albion  W. 6 

Smith,   Adam    8,  101 

Socialism    9 

significance  of 99 

Social  classes,  the 179 

Social  evil    76 

diseases  in  connection  with 77 

Social  order,  family  conserves  the 78 

Social  point  of  view  4 

Social  progress,  the  fact  of  and  the   factors  in 9 

Social  sciences,  teaching  of 4 

the  field  of   7,  193 


INDEX.  205 

Sociology,  science  of 193 

Sociological  foundations  of  law  114 

Social  structure,  and  the  family 78 

Soil,   conservation   of    24 

Speed    in    industry     45,  46,  72 

Spencer,  theory  of  play 55 

Standard   of  living    73 

State,  and  international  law 117 

cost  of  maintaining  110-112 

development  of    106-108 

origin  of 105 

the  modern  state 108 

Statistical    description    of   heredity 31 

Struggle  for  existence   30 

Summary  of  physical  and  geographical  factors 26 

Summary    of    social    progress 187-195 

Sympathy,  social  function  of   172 

Taboo    125,  130 

Tattooing    143 

Taxation    110-112 

Teaching  of  social  sciences 4 

Technicalities,  overemphasis  of 116 

Tenement  housing  problem  68 

Terrace  agricurture  21 

Tetanus    44 

Theories  of  play   55 

Trade,  beginning  of 128 

Transportation    93-95 

Tribal  religion    131 

Tribal  state  107 

Tropics   24 

Trusts   89 

Tuberculosis    43 

Typhoid    43 

Unemployment    91 

Urban  problems    190 

United  States,  development  of  agriculture  in 83 

development  of  labor  unions  in 87 

divorce   in 75 

history  of  transportation  in  94 

migration  to    189 

Variability    33 

Variation    

Vitality  classes   178 

Wages 73 

War 124 


206  INDEX. 

Water-power,  conservation  of 25 

Water  supply  and  sanitation 51 

Wiley,  H.  W. 50 

Well-born,  right  to  be   191 

Woman,  dependence  of   61 

in   industry    70 

nature  of   63 

Work  as  a  character-builder 123 

Worship,  earliest  objects  of 130 

Yellow  fever  44 

Zones,  complementary  regions  of  trade 23 


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